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The Origins of the term “Palestinian” (“Filasṭīnī”) in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898–1914

Profile image of Zachary J FosterZachary J FosterProfile image of Emanuel BeškaEmanuel Beška

2021, Academia Letters

https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884
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22 pages

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Abstract

Baydas, Qub'ayn and Naṣṣār were the first three Arabs in modern history to use the term Palestinian, and each of them attended the Russian Teacher's Training Seminary in Nazareth in the late 19th century. The boarding school emphasized the Arabic language, encouraged Arab dress, taught the history and geography of Palestine and took students on trips to the Holy Land's pilgrimage sites. Young Arabs from around Palestine were taken out of their home, learned to take pride in their heritage and were exposed to stories and images that made Palestine seem real and important. No surprise that many of school's graduates were among the earliest to use the term Palestinian. 3 After the Revolution The 1908 Ottoman Constitutional Revolution brought with it press freedoms in Palestine, and dozens of Arabic periodicals appeared on the scene. The most successful papers attracted some 1,000-1,500 subscribers, circulated once or twice a week and were sent to small towns and villages around Jerusalem,

Key takeaways
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  1. Khalīl Baydas first used the term 'Palestinian' in 1898, marking its historical inception.
  2. Press freedoms post-1908 revolution catalyzed the widespread use of 'Filasṭīnī' in Palestinian newspapers.
  3. The term 'Filasṭīnī' appeared approximately 170 times in over 110 articles between 1908-1914.
  4. Palestinian identity emerged strongly among migrants in the Americas during 1908-1914.
  5. The text explores the evolution of Palestinian identity through education and media.

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References (156)

  1. References (List of References to "Palestinian" and "the Palestinians")
  2. Khalīl Baydas. Kitāb al-rawḍa al-mu'nisa fī waṣf al-Arḍ al-muqaddasa [A Description of the Holy Land] (Ba'abdā, Lebanon: al-maṭba'a al-'uthmānīya, 1898).
  3. Salīm Qub'ayn. Buldān filasṭīnīya yaṣifuhā Filasṭīnī [A Palestinian Describes Palestinian Towns]. al-Jāmi'a, 3:6, 1902, pp. 404-6.
  4. Najīb Naṣṣār. 1902. Buldān filasṭīnīya yaṣifuhā Filasṭīnī [A Palestinian Describes Palestinian Towns. al-Jāmi'a, 3:9, 1902, pp. 612-5.
  5. Farīd Jirjis Qaṣṣāb. Palestine, Hellénisme et Cléricalisme (Constantinople: Impr. de La Patrie, 1909), pp. 5, 8, 22, 26, 31. al-Quds
  6. The Arabic Press and Nationalism in Palestine, 1920-1948 (Unpublished dissertation, Syracuse University, 1975), ch. 2; Rashid Khalidi, Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), ch. 3. Academia Letters, July 2021
  7. Corresponding Author: Emanuel Beška, [email protected] Citation: Beška, E., Foster, Z. (2021). The Origins of the term "Palestinian" ("Filasṭīnī") in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898-1914. Academia Letters, Article 1884. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884. ("al-sha'b al-filasṭīnī"; "sha'b Filasṭīn")
  8. Tawfīq Zaybaq. Ḥājatunā al-kubrā ilā al-rijāl [Our Greatest Need for Men]. 24 November 1908, no. 20, p. 1. ("al-fard al-filasṭīnī")
  9. Tawfīq Zaybaq. Ḥājatunā al-kubrā ilā al-rijāl [Our Greatest Need for Men]. 27 November 1908, no. 21, p. 1. ("al-mujtama' al-filasṭīnī") [Anonymous author]. Juninnā bi Laylā wa hiya junnat bi ghayrinā [We Became Crazy because of Laylā and She Became Crazy because of Someone Else]. 12 January 1909, no. 32, p. 1. ("al-sha'b al-urthūdhuksī al-filasṭīnī") [Likely al-Quds's agent in Brasil -Yūsuf Ḥanā 'Aṭāallāh al-Baytlaḥmī.] Barnambūk [Per- nambuco]. 29 January 1909, no. 34, p. 3. ("al-jāliya al-filasṭīnīya")
  10. Li wakīlinā [al-Quds's agent in Brasil Yūsuf Ḥanā 'Aṭāallāh al-Baytlaḥmī]. Akhbār al-Brāzīl li wakīlinā [The News from Brazil by Our Agent].
  11. 9 February 1909, no. 36, p. 3. ("al-jāliya al-'uthmānīya bi ṭarafinā min al-Sūrīyīn wa al-Filasṭīnīyīn")
  12. M. [likely Jewish Sephardi author]. al-Mas'ala al-filasṭīnīya [The Palestinian Issue].
  13. Jurjī Ḥabīb Ḥanāniyā. Ghazza [Gaza].
  14. Jurjī Ḥabīb Ḥanāniyā. Ziyārat raṣīf fāḍil [A Visit of a Distinguished Colleague].
  15. 1 March 1910, no. 126, p. 3. ("al-nāshiya al-filasṭīnīya wa 'alā al-khuṣūṣ al-qudsīya")
  16. Corresponding Author: Emanuel Beška, [email protected] Citation: Beška, E., Foster, Z. (2021). The Origins of the term "Palestinian" ("Filasṭīnī") in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898-1914. Academia Letters, Article 1884. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884. p. 1. ("Min Filasṭīnī ilā shā'ir Filasṭīn")
  17. Urthūdhuksī [An Orthodox].
  18. Shu'ūn urthūdhuksīya [Orthodox Matters].
  19. Jurjī Ḥabīb Ḥanāniyā. al-Zirā'a ḥayāt bilādinā [Agriculture Is the Lifeblood of Our Country].
  20. Filasṭīn Murāsil [Correspondent]. al-Quds -li murāsilinā [Jerusalem -By Our Correspondent].
  21. 9 September 1911, no. 67, p. 3. ("al-sha'b al-filasṭīnī wa al-sūrī")
  22. Ṣāḥib jarīdat al-Ikhā' min Ḥamā [The Owner of the Newspaper al-Ikhā' from Ḥamā]. al- Marra laysat 'āda [One Time Is Not a Habit]. 7 February 1912, no. 109, p. 3. ("al-Filasṭīnīyūn")
  23. Rāghib al-Khālidī. Istifāḍat al-khabar [The Spread of the News].
  24. 8 May 1912, no. 134, p. 3. ("al-umma al-filasṭīnīya", "ahl Filasṭīn")
  25. Majallat al-Kullīya [The Journal al-Kullīya]. Aqwāl al-ṣuḥuf: Judūduhum lam taskun al- sawāḥil [Newspaper Reports: Their Ancestors Did Not Live on the Coast]. 13 July 1912, no. 153, p. 3. ("Filasṭīnīyīn", "al-Filasṭīnīyūn")
  26. Jibrān Maṭar. Filasṭīn [Palestine].
  27. 31 August 1912, no. 167, p. 2 ("al-Filasṭīnīnīyīn wa al-Isrāīlīyīn") al-'Āṣī [republished from the Argentinian newspaper al-Zamān]. Man naḥnu wa mā nusammā [Who Are We and How Should We Be Called[?]]. 12 October 1912, no. 179, p. 4
  28. Corresponding Author: Emanuel Beška, [email protected] Citation: Beška, E., Foster, Z. (2021). The Origins of the term "Palestinian" ("Filasṭīnī") in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898-1914. Academia Letters, Article 1884. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884. ("ujībūnī yā Filasṭīnīyīn mādhā nusammā"; "awwal yad filasṭīnī" [comment by Yūsuf al-'Īsā] ("al-Filasṭīnīyīn")
  29. Filasṭīnī. Ḥibr 'alā waraq [Mere Ink on a Paper].
  30. Yūsuf al-'Īsā. Tarfī' al-thawb al-bālī [Lifting of the Garb [Covering] the Mind]. 27 November 1912, no. 192, p. 1. ("al-muwāṭinīn al-filasṭīnīyīn") al-Muqtabas [perhaps Muḥammad Kurd 'Alī]. Filasṭīn wa al-Ṣahyūnīyīn [Palestine and the Zionists]. 25 December 1912, no. 200, p. 4
  31. "inna mustaqbal Filasṭīn ẓāhir bi 'aks mustaqbal al-Filasṭīnīyīn" Iskandar Shaḥḥāda. Shīkāghū [Chicago].
  32. 5 February 1913, no. 210, p. 4. ("al-sha'b al-sūrī al-urthūdhuksī al-filasṭīnī")
  33. Bayt Laḥm [Bethlehem]. 26 February 1913, no. 216, p. 4. ("al-sha'b al-filasṭīnī al-urthūdhuksī")
  34. 'Abdalghanī Shukrī al-Ḥusaynī. Ḥabbadhā al-iṣlāḥ [How Good Are the Reforms[!]].
  35. Filasṭīnī [A Palestinian]. Hal taṣluḥ al-lāmarkazīya (fī Filasṭīn) [Is Decentralization Suitable (in Palestine)].
  36. Aḥmad Sāmiḥ al-Khālidī. Jam'īyat Filasṭīn fī Kullīyat Bayrūt [The Palestine Association at the Syrian Protestant College]. 12 July 1913, no. 253, p. 2.
  37. Corresponding Author: Emanuel Beška, [email protected] Citation: Beška, E., Foster, Z. (2021). The Origins of the term "Palestinian" ("Filasṭīnī") in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898-1914. Academia Letters, Article 1884. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884. ("Filasṭīnīyūn"; "jarīdat Filasṭīn hiya lisān al-ḥāl kāfat al-Filasṭīnīyīn"; "al-nāshiya al-filasṭīnīya al-jadīda"; "Filasṭīnīyū al-kullīya")
  38. Rāghib Efendī al-Khālidī. al-Hijra 'inda al-'Arab [Arab Emigration]. 26 July 1913, no. 257, pp. 1-2. ("al-umma al-filasṭīnīya", "al-umma al-filasṭīnīya")
  39. Fāris Na'āma, Ḥāris ibn 'Abbād / Ramla. Qaṭf al-'inab al-mash'ūm [The Picking of the Ill- Omened Grapes].
  40. 2 August 1913, no. 259, p. 3. ("kafā kafā yā al-sha'b al-filasṭīnī")
  41. Sulaymān al-Tājī al-Fārūqī. Ḥurrīya am isti'bād wa 'adl am istibdād [Freedom or Enslave- ment and Justice or Tyranny]. 30 August 1913, no. 267, p. 5, mulḥaq [extra sheet].
  42. "al-ra'y al-'āmm al-filasṭīnī")
  43. 'Īsā al-Safarī. 'Alā dhikr marfa' Yāfā [Speaking of the Port of Jaffa]. 10 September 1913, no. 270, p. 3. ("al-sha'b al-filasṭīnī al-khāmil", "rijāl Filasṭīn")
  44. 'Alī Rīmāwī. Taḥta shajara: 'Ajā'ib wa gharā'ib [Under a Tree: Remarkable Things and Oddities].
  45. 8 October 1913 no. 278, p. 2 ("al-Filasṭīnīyīn al-qudamā"')
  46. Yūsuf Ya'qūb. al-Talāḥima wa quṣūruhum [The Bethlehemites and Their Palaces]. 11 Octo- ber 1913, no. 279, p. 2 ("al-Talāḥima wa jamī' ikhwānihim al-filasṭīnīyīn")
  47. Rashīd. Murāsalāt: al-muhājara al-filasṭīnīya [Correspondence: Palestinian Emigration]. 18 October 1913, no. 281, p. 3. ("akthar al-Filasṭīnīyīn", "muhājarat al-Filasṭīnīyīn")
  48. Ḥannā Abū al-Ṣūf. Ṣarkha min shawāṭi' al-Bāsīfīk [An Outcry from the Pacific Coast]. 18 October 1913, no. 281, pp. 3-4.
  49. "iṣlāḥ shu'ūn al-milla al-urthūdhuksīya al-filasṭīnīya")
  50. Corresponding Author: Emanuel Beška, [email protected] Citation: Beška, E., Foster, Z. (2021). The Origins of the term "Palestinian" ("Filasṭīnī") in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898-1914. Academia Letters, Article 1884. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884. Yūsuf al-'Īsā [author of the comment which contains the terms]. al-Muhājirūn al-muḥtālūn [The Emigrant Swindlers].
  51. 1 November 1913, no. 285, p. 3. ("abnā' Sūriyā wa Filasṭīn"; "al-ism al-sūrī wa al-filasṭīnī")
  52. Jibrān Maṭar. Bayt Laḥm -li ṣāḥib al-tawqī' [Bethlehem -by the Below-Signed]. 12 Novem- ber 1913, no. 288, p. 3. ("al-nāshi'a al-filasṭīnīya")
  53. Murāsilunā [Our Correspondent]. al-Wilāyāt al-muttaḥida: Klīfland -li murāsilinā [The United States: Cleveland -by Our Correspondent]. 17 December 1913, no. 292, p. 1. ("al-muhājir al-filasṭīnī", "abnā' Filasṭīn") al-Ra'y al-'āmm al-agharr li mukātibihi al-mutajawwil [By the Traveling Correspondent of the Honorable al-Ra'y al-'Āmm]. Aqwāl al-ṣuḥuf fī ta'ṭīl jarīdat Filasṭīn [Newspaper Re- ports on the Suspension of the Newspaper Filasṭīn]. 17 December 1913, no. 292, p. 2. ("al-sha'b al-filasṭīnī")
  54. Newspaper Peyâm -Istanbul. Ārā' al-mukhliṣīn fī salāmat al-waṭan [Opinions of the Faithful about Homelands Well-Being]. 17 December 1913, no. 292, p. 4. ("al-Filasṭīnīyūn al-masākīn", "al-Filasṭīnī")
  55. Majallat al-Ikhā' al-gharrā [The Honorable Journal al-Ikhā']. Aqwāl al-ṣuḥuf fī ta'ṭīl jarīdat Filasṭīn [Newspaper Reports on the Suspension of the Newspaper Filasṭīn]. 24 December 1913, no. 293, p. 2. ("al-sha'b al-filasṭīnī", "al-sha'b al-filasṭīnī")
  56. Yūsuf Ya'qūb. Nyū Yūrk -li ṣāḥib al-tawqī' [New York -by the Below-Signed]. 27 Decem- ber 1913, no. 294, p. 3. ("nukhbat al-Filasṭīnīyīn")
  57. Jurjī al-Khūrī Sulaymān. Jurūḥunā al-arba'a: radd 'alā radd 'alā radd [Our Four Wounds: Reply to a Reply to a Reply].
  58. "maththala al-umma al-filasṭīnīya fī majlis nuwwāb al-dawla al-sābiq")
  59. Corresponding Author: Emanuel Beška, [email protected] Citation: Beška, E., Foster, Z. (2021). The Origins of the term "Palestinian" ("Filasṭīnī") in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898-1914. Academia Letters, Article 1884. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884. Yūsuf al-'Īsā. Ḥaraka mubāraka islāmīya [Blessed Islamic Movement].
  60. 24 January 1914, no. 301, p. 1. ("al-umma al-filasṭīnīya 'alā ikhtilāf 'anāṣirihā")
  61. 24 January 1914, no. 301, p. 2. ("al-sha'b al-filasṭīnī") [26 signatures, among them] Ḥuṣāmaddīn Abū al-Su'ūd, Rushdī al-Shawā, Mu'ādh al-Khālidī, Fu'ād al-Nashāshībī, Fakhrī al-Ḥusaynī, 'Ārif 'Ārif. Ākhir sā'a [Last Hour]. 24 January 1914, no. 301, p. 4 ("al-shabība al-'arabīya al-filasṭīnīya") [likely Yūsuf al-'Īsā] ("al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya")
  62. Rashīd. Taḥta shajara [Under a Tree].
  63. 7 February 1914, no. 305, p. 4. ("annī rajul 'arabī filasṭīnī 'uthmānī") The newspaper al-Murshid. Ṭalla iḍṭirārīya [A Necessary Look]. 11 February 1914, no. 306, p. 2. ("Li jarīdat Filasṭīn wa li ra'īs taḥrīrihā Yūsuf Afandī al-'Īsā manzila sāmiya fī qulūb al- Filasṭīnīyīn fī hādhihi al-jumhūrīya")
  64. 'Azīz 'Arīḍa. Ḥadīth ma'a Baylis [Interview with Beilis]. 18 February 1914, no. 308, p. 2. ("al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya al-rāqiya 'alā ikhtilāf madhāhibihā")
  65. Ya'qūb Jirjis Khalīl. Taqaddum aw qahqarā: Risāla min al-Wilāyāt al-muttaḥida [Advance- ment or Decline: A Letter from the United States]. 18 February 1914, no. 308, p. 4. ("abnā' Filasṭīn", "al-muhājir al-filasṭīnī" [quotes from the letter of "Rashīd", no. 292] "al-Filasṭīnīyūn fī hādhihi al-bilād"; "al-ism al-filasṭīnī", "jam'īya filasṭīnīya 'umūmīya khayrīya")
  66. Aḥmad Sāmiḥ al-Khālidī. Shay' 'an Jam'īyat Filasṭīn fī al-Kullīya al-amīrkīya [Something about the Palestine Association at the Syrian Protestant College]. 11 March 1914, no. 314, Academia Letters, July 2021
  67. Corresponding Author: Emanuel Beška, [email protected] Citation: Beška, E., Foster, Z. (2021). The Origins of the term "Palestinian" ("Filasṭīnī") in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898-1914. Academia Letters, Article 1884. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884. p. 2. ("al-talāmidha al-filasṭīnīyīn", "al-talāmidha al-filasṭīnīyīn")
  68. Rāghib Efendī al-Khālidī. Mā huwa al-mab'ūth? [What Is a Deputy?]. 18 March 1914, no. 316, pp. 1-2.
  69. "al-umma al-filasṭīnīya", "al-umma al-filasṭīnīya", "ayyuhā al-Filasṭīnīyūn intakhibū al-akfiyā"')
  70. Aḥmad Sāmiḥ al-Khālidī. Shay an Jamīyat Filasṭīn fī al-Kullīya al-Amīrkīya [Something about the Palestine Association at the Syrian Protestant College]. 21 March 1914, no. 317, p. 2. ("al-Filasṭīnīyīn", "al-Filasṭīnīyīn fī al-kullīya", "'adad al-talāmīdh al-filasṭīnīyīn")
  71. Sh. Risāla min al-balda [A Letter from the City].
  72. 1 April 1914, no. 320, p. 3. ("al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya")
  73. Yūsuf al-'Īsā, Rashīd Efendī. al-Filasṭīnīyūn fī Shīkāghū [Palestinians in Chicago]. 11 April 1914, no. 323, p. 2. [likely: Yūsuf al-'Īsā] ("al-Filasṭīnīyūn fī Shīkāghū", "ikhwāninā al-filasṭīnīyīn fī dār al- mahjar"); [author: Rashīd Efendī] ("ikhwānunā al-muslimīn al-filasṭīnīyīn")
  74. 18 authors: al-tawāqī' [Signatures]. Tilighrāf ākhar min ahālī Filasṭīn [Another Telegram from the Inhabitants of Palestine]. 11 April 1914, no. 323, p. 5, mulḥaq [extra sheet].
  75. "Naḥnu ikhwānukum al-filasṭīnīyūn", "min ahl Filasṭīn", "al-Filasṭīnīyīn")
  76. Yūsuf al-'Īsā] ("al-Filasṭīnīyūn fī Shīkāghū", "ikhwānunā al-filasṭīnīyīn al-muhājirīn", "al- munāfasa al-dīnīya bayna ikhwānunā al-filasṭīnīyīn al-muhājirīn");
  77. 'Abdallāh Damghān] ("Filasṭīnīyūn fī jamī' aqṭā' al-ma'mūr") al-Ḥārith (in al-Fatā al-'arabī). Kalima muqtaḍaba (ilā nuwābinā al-kirām) [A Short Remark Academia Letters, July 2021
  78. Corresponding Author: Emanuel Beška, [email protected] Citation: Beška, E., Foster, Z. (2021). The Origins of the term "Palestinian" ("Filasṭīnī") in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898-1914. Academia Letters, Article 1884. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884. (to Our Honorable Deputies)].
  79. 6 June 1914, no. 325, p. 6. ("al-umma al-filasṭīnīya")
  80. Najīb Naṣṣār / al-Karmal. al-Ṣahyūnīya immā khaṭar 'aẓīm wa immā mithāl ḥasan [Zionism Is Either a Great Danger or a Good Example].
  81. 6 June 1914, no. 325, p. 6. ("al-Filasṭīnīyūn khāṣṣatan wa al-'Arab 'āmmatan", "al-Filasṭīnīyūn", "takwīn ra'y 'āmm 'arabī 'uthmānī filasṭīnī", "al-umma al-filasṭīnīya al-'arabīya", "al-Filasṭīnīyīn")
  82. 6 June 1914, no. 325, p. 9. ("al-sha'b al-filasṭīnī")
  83. Najīb Naṣṣār / al-Karmal. Laysa lī waṭan [I Have No Home/Homeland]. 13 June 1914, no. 327, p. 3. ("al-Filasṭīnīyīn […] yuṣbiḥūna kulluhum bilā al-waṭan")
  84. Iskandar al-Khūrī. Shu'ūn urthūdhuksīya: 3 -al-Shay' min ma'dinihi lā yustaghrab [Ortho- dox Matters: 3 -One Does Not Find Strange His Own Nature]. 24 June 1914, no. 330, p.
  85. "Anā ka Filasṭīnī, wa ka 'uḍw min jism al-urthūdhuksīya al-filasṭīnīya")
  86. Murāsilunā fī al-Shīlī [Our Correspondent from Chile]. Taṣḥīḥ khabar [Correction of a Re- port]. 24 June 1914, no. 330, p. 4. ("al-jāliya al-filasṭīnīya") al-Ab [Father] Buṭrus, Shammās [Deacon] Yūsuf 'Aṭāallāh, wujahā' hādhihi al-ṭā'ifa [Nota- bles of this Denomination]. Tabarru' maḥmūd [A Praiseworthy Donation]. 27 June 1914, no. 331, p. 2. ("Idhā kāna fī al-mahjar qawm yalṭakhūna al-ism al-filasṭīnī")
  87. The newspaper] al-Ra'y al-'āmm. Jam'īya 'arabīya islāmīya fī dār al-mulk [An Arab Islamic Association in Istanbul]. 18 July 1914, no. 337, p. 5. ("al-fallāḥ wa al-zāri' al-sūrī wa al-filasṭīnī")
  88. Iskandar Shaḥḥāda. Jam'īya filasṭīnīya fī Shīkāghū intikhābātuhā al-niṣf ṣanawīya wa ta'sīs far' Nyūyūrk [Palestinian Association in Chicago, Its Biannual Elections and Founding of the New York Branch]. 22 July 1914, no. 338, p. 5.
  89. Corresponding Author: Emanuel Beška, [email protected] Citation: Beška, E., Foster, Z. (2021). The Origins of the term "Palestinian" ("Filasṭīnī") in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898-1914. Academia Letters, Article 1884. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884. ("al-jāliya al-filasṭīnīya")
  90. Jamīl al-Rāfi'ī / Kharṭūm. Naṣīḥa wa 'itāb [An Advice and a Rebuke]. 25 July 1914, no. 339, p. 3. ("alimtu min ba'ḍ ikhwānī al-filasṭīnīyīn", "aḥad abnā' Filasṭīn")
  91. The Gaza Correspondent. Ghazza -li murāsilinā [Gaza -by Our Correspondent].
  92. al-Karmal M.Kh. Kitāb naṣūḥ [A Sincere Letter].
  93. Sulaymān Naẓīf Bak [author of the term]/ Farūq [Istanbul], Sayf al-Dīn al-Khaṭīb / Majallat "al-Ijtihād" [The Journal al-Ijtihād]. 'Ibra li a'dā' al-iṣlāḥ [Advice to the Enemies of the Reforms].
  94. 4 July 1913, no. 346, p. 1. ("al-farq bayna al-Makidūnīyīn wa al-Filasṭīnīyīn")
  95. Najīb Naṣṣār. Ilā khiyāmika yā Isrā'īl [To Your Tents, Oh, Israel[!]]. 25 July 1913, no. 352, p. 2 ("jamā'at Filasṭīnīyīn")
  96. Najīb Naṣṣār. Bushrā ḥasana [A Good News]. 5 August 1913, no. 355, p. 2 ("al-Filasṭīnīyūn")
  97. Najīb Naṣṣār [his comment contains the term]. Badāri badāri [Hurry, Hurry [!]].
  98. 8 August 1913, no. 356, p. 2. ("al-Sūrīyūn 'umūman wa al-Filasṭīnīyūn khuṣūṣan")
  99. Corresponding Author: Emanuel Beška, [email protected] Citation: Beška, E., Foster, Z. (2021). The Origins of the term "Palestinian" ("Filasṭīnī") in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898-1914. Academia Letters, Article 1884. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884.
  100. Najīb Naṣṣār. Mu'tamar Nābulus al-lāṣahyūnī [Anti-Zionist Congress in Nablus]. 26 August 1913, no. 361, p. 2. ("al-Filasṭīnīyīn") al-Shabība al-filasṭīnīya [The Palestinian Youth]. al-Mu'tamar al-lāṣahyūnī [Anti-Zionist Congress].
  101. 9 September 1913, no. 363, p. 1. ("al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya")
  102. Najīb Naṣṣār. al-Jāmi'a al-'arabīya al-filasṭīnīya [The Arab Palestinian Community]. 19 August 1913, no. 366, p. 1.
  103. "al-firqa al-filasṭīnīya", "naḥnu al-Filasṭīnīyīn", "al-jāmi'a al-'arabīya al-filasṭīnīya" Najīb Naṣṣār. al-Jāmi'a al-'arabīya al-filasṭīnīya: Jihād shāqq wa lākinnahu ladhīdh [The Arab Palestinian Community: An Arduous but Sweet Fight]. 26 August 1913, no. 368, pp. 1-2. ("jāmi'a 'arabīya filasṭīnīya", "al-Filasṭīnīyīn", "al-Filasṭīnī")
  104. Najīb Naṣṣār. al-Bayrūtīyūn wa naḥnu [The Beirutis and Us].
  105. Najīb Naṣṣār. Mā yuhaddidu Bayrūtīyīn [What Threatens the Beirutis]. 14 October 1913, no. 374, p. 3. ("ikhwānuhum al-filasṭīnīyīn")
  106. Najīb Naṣṣār. al-Duwal wa Filasṭīn: al-nufūdh al-rūsī [The Powers and Palestine: The Russian Influence]. 14 November 1913, no. 382, p. 3. ("al-Filasṭīnīyūn wa al-Sūrīyūn")
  107. Najīb Naṣṣār [translated and retold article from the newspaper Peyâm -published in Istanbul].
  108. Ārā' al-mukhliṣīn fī salāmat al-waṭan [Opinions of the Faithful about the Well-Being of the Homeland]. 12 December 1913, no. 389, p. 1. ("al-Filasṭīnīyūn"; "al-Filasṭīnī")
  109. Najīb Naṣṣār. Mawqifunā al-iqtiṣādī: Ḥayātunā bi al-iḥtifāẓ bi arāḍīnā [Our Economic Situ- Academia Letters, July 2021
  110. Corresponding Author: Emanuel Beška, [email protected] Citation: Beška, E., Foster, Z. (2021). The Origins of the term "Palestinian" ("Filasṭīnī") in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898-1914. Academia Letters, Article 1884. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884. ation: Our Live [Depends] on the Retention of Our Lands]. 23 December 1913, no. 392, p. 4. ("kull 'Arabī 'Uthmānī 'alā al-'umūm wa kull Filasṭīnī 'Uthmānī 'alā al-khuṣūṣ")
  111. Fu'ād Jisr. Limādhā nahjuru al-awṭān [Why Do We Emigrate from Our Homes]. 26 Decem- ber 1913, no. 393, p. 3. ("da'at jamī' al-Filasṭinīyīn ilā al-muhājara")
  112. Najīb Naṣṣār. Fī waqt wāḥid [At the Same Time]. 27 February 1914, no. 409, p. 1. ("Wājibāt al-Filasṭīnī", "al-Filasṭinīyīn", "al-Filasṭinīyūn")
  113. Najīb Naṣṣār. al-Iḥtijāj 'alā al-Ṣahyūnīyīn [Protest against the Zionists]. 10 April 1914, no. 420, p. 1. ("al-Jāmi'a al-'arabīya 'alā al-'umūm wa al-filasṭinīya 'alā al-khuṣūṣ")
  114. Najīb Naṣṣār. al-Ṣahyūnīya immā khaṭar 'aẓīm wa immā mithāl ḥasan [Zionism Is Either a Great Danger or a Good Example].
  115. "ra'y 'āmm 'arabī 'uthmānī filasṭīnī", "al-Filasṭinīyūn chāṣṣatan wa al-'Arab 'āmmatan", "al-Filasṭinīyūn", "al-Filasṭinīyūn", "al-Filasṭinīyūn", "nahḍat al-umma al-filasṭīnīya al- 'arabīya")
  116. Najīb Naṣṣār. al-Ḥaqq 'alā al-ṣuḥuf bal al-ḥaqq 'alā ru'ūsinā [[It Is Not] the Duty of the Newspapers, Rather it Is Our Duty]. 24 April 1914, no. 423, p. 1
  117. "naḥnu al-Filasṭīnīyūn", "qawmay al-Filasṭinīyīn khāṣṣatan wa al-'Arab 'āmmatan", "kibār an-nufūs min al-Filasṭīnīyīn")
  118. Najīb Naṣṣār. Mashrū' 'Atlīt al-ṣahyūnī [The Zionist Atlit Project].
  119. Corresponding Author: Emanuel Beška, [email protected] Citation: Beška, E., Foster, Z. (2021). The Origins of the term "Palestinian" ("Filasṭīnī") in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898-1914. Academia Letters, Article 1884. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884. p. 2. ("Fa yadhkuru lahu al-'Arab lā sīyamā al-Filasṭīnīyūn")
  120. Najīb Naṣṣār. Ra'y fī al-ṣahyūnīya [Opinion about Zionism].
  121. 1 May 1914, no. 425, p. 1. ("ra'y 'āmm min al-Filasṭīnīyīn khāṣṣatan wa min al-Sūriyīn wa al-'Arab 'āmmatan")
  122. Najīb Naṣṣār. Fatā al-'Arab wa al-ṣahyūnīya [Arabs and Zionism].
  123. Najīb Naṣṣār. Filasṭīn tuḥayyī Bayrūt [Palestine Greets Beirut].
  124. Najīb Naṣṣār. al-'Uthmānīya [Ottomanism]. 12 May 1914, no. 428, p. 1 ("fa yaḥfaẓūn Filasṭīn li al-Filasṭīnīyīn al-'uthmānīyīn wa yaktasibūn riḍā' al-'Arab jamī'an")
  125. Najīb Naṣṣār [parafrasing a Palestinian student from al-Azhar -Qāsim Efendī al- Fāhūm].
  126. Jam'īya lā ṣahyūnīya [An Anti-Zionist Association]. 15 May 1914, no. 429, p. 2. ("al-Filasṭīnīyīn")
  127. Najīb Naṣṣār. al-Sayyid Wajīh Kaylānī: Khādim al-islām wa al-madanīya [al-Sayyid Wajīh Kaylānī: Servant of Islam and Civilization]. 15 May 1914, no. 429, p. 2 ("al-Filasṭīnīyīn")
  128. Waṭanī [A Native]. Man hum a'dā'unā [Who Are Our Enemies]. 15 May 1914, no. 429, p. 3 ("al-Filasṭīnīyīn", "anā Filasṭīnī") [Likely a member of this organization.] Sharika iqtiṣādīya [An Economic Company]. 22 May 1914, no. 431, p. 2. ("al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya")
  129. Corresponding Author: Emanuel Beška, [email protected] Citation: Beška, E., Foster, Z. (2021). The Origins of the term "Palestinian" ("Filasṭīnī") in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898-1914. Academia Letters, Article 1884. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884.
  130. Najīb Naṣṣār. Jam'īyat al-shabība al-nābulusīya [The Nābulus Youth Association].
  131. "al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya", "al-shabība al-waṭanīya aw al-filasṭīnīya")
  132. Najīb Naṣṣār. Jam'īya filasṭīnīya jadīda fī Fārūq [A New Palestinian Association in Istanbul]. 12 June 1914, no. 437, pp. 1-2.
  133. "al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya khuṣūṣan wa al-sūrīya 'umūman", "al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya"; "al- shabība al-filasṭīnīya"; "jam' kalimāt al-Filasṭīnīyīn wa ta'līf qulūbihim 'alā al-khuṣūṣ wa qulūb al-'Arab 'alā al-'umūm")
  134. Najīb Naṣṣār. Laysa lī waṭan [I Have No Home/Homeland].
  135. 12 June 1914, no. 437, p. 2. ("al-Filasṭīnīyīn […] yuṣbiḥūna kulluhum bilā al-waṭan")
  136. Najīb Naṣṣār. al-'Ulūm al-'amalīya [Practical Sciences].
  137. 23 June 1914, no. 440, p. 2. ("khamsa min al-Filasṭīnīyīn")
  138. 7 July 1914, no. 444, p. 2. ("yā ma'shar al-Muslimīn yā ma'shar al-Filasṭīnīyīn", "yā ma'shar al-Sūrīyīn", "yā ma'shar al-'Arab")
  139. Najīb Naṣṣār. al-'Arab yaḥtājūn qabla kull shay' ilā thalāthat umūr ra'īsīya [The Arabs Need Three Main Things Above All]. 10 July 1914, no. 445, p. 1-2.
  140. "al-Filasṭīnīyīn khuṣūṣan wa al-'Arab 'umūman")
  141. 10 July 1914, no. 445, p. 3. ("al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya", "al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya")
  142. Najīb Naṣṣār. Jam'īya 'arabīya islāmīya [Arab-Islamic Association]. 14 July 1914, no. 446, p. 2. Academia Letters, July 2021
  143. Corresponding Author: Emanuel Beška, [email protected] Citation: Beška, E., Foster, Z. (2021). The Origins of the term "Palestinian" ("Filasṭīnī") in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898-1914. Academia Letters, Article 1884. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884. ("al-fallāḥ wa al-zarrā' al-filasṭīnī wa al-sūrī")
  144. Najīb Naṣṣār. Jam'īyat muqāwamat al-Ṣahyūnīyīn [Anti-Zionist Association].
  145. 28 July 1914, no. 450, p. 3 ("li al-'Arab 'umūman wa li al-Filasṭīnīyīn khuṣūṣan")
  146. Najīb Naṣṣār. Idārat al-barq [The Telegraph Office]. 28 July 1914, no. 450, p. 3. ("al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya")
  147. Najīb Naṣṣār. Yā shabībat Filasṭīn uthbitī wujūdaki [Oh, Youth, Prove Your Existence]. 31 July 1914, no. 451, p. 3.
  148. "al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya", "al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya", "shabība filasṭīnīya", "shabībat Fi- lasṭīn")
  149. Najīb Naṣṣār. Sīrī taḥtafiẓ ayyuhā al-Shabība [Oh, Youth, Uphold].
  150. 4 August 1914, no. 452, p. 1. ("al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya")
  151. Najīb Naṣṣār. I'malī mustaqilla ayyatuhā al-shabība [Oh, Youth, Work Independently [!]].
  152. "al-shabība lā sīyamā al-filasṭīnīya"; "al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya", "al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya", "al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya", "al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya")
  153. Najīb Naṣṣār. [Article title not visible]. 14 August 1914, no. 455, p. 3/1. ("al-shabība al-filasṭīnīya") al-Munādī Muḥammad Mūsā al-Maghribī. al-Sirr fī al-najāḥ [The Secret Behind the Success].
  154. Muḥammad Mūsā al-Maghribī. Filasṭīn fī Amīrkā [Palestine in America]. 12 October 1912, no. 40, p. 1. ("al-shubbān al-filasṭīnīyīn")
  155. Corresponding Author: Emanuel Beška, [email protected] Citation: Beška, E., Foster, Z. (2021). The Origins of the term "Palestinian" ("Filasṭīnī") in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898-1914. Academia Letters, Article 1884. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884. al-Nafīr Ilyā Zakā. 14 June 1910. ("Yahfaẓ" li al-Filasṭīnīyīn karāmatahum") al-Iqdām Muḥammad al-Shanṭī. 1914. ("Palestinian Youth") (cited in Khalidi, Palestinian Identity, 56)
  156. Corresponding Author: Emanuel Beška, [email protected] Citation: Beška, E., Foster, Z. (2021). The Origins of the term "Palestinian" ("Filasṭīnī") in late Ottoman Palestine, 1898-1914. Academia Letters, Article 1884. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1884.

FAQs

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What explains the rapid propagation of the term 'Palestinian' between 1898-1914?add

The term 'Palestinian' gained traction through newspaper publications following the 1908 Ottoman Constitutional Revolution, where it appeared in over 110 articles. By 1914, it was referenced 26 times in one publication alone, reflecting a significant growth in its usage.

Which social contexts facilitated the emergence of a Palestinian identity?add

Discussions in newspapers heavily revolved around themes of migration, Zionism, and the Orthodox Renaissance, shaping collective identity. Notably, Palestinian migrants in diverse neighborhoods began identifying explicitly as 'Palestinians' in response to their surroundings.

How did Ottoman periodicals contribute to discussions on Palestinian identity?add

Newspapers like al-Quds and Filasṭīn integrated terms like 'Palestinian society' and 'Palestinian diaspora', illustrating a shift in self-identification among Palestinian Arabs. They integrated various voices, including expatriates and local elites, fostering broader discourse on Palestinian identity.

Who were the early adopters of the term 'Palestinian' in literature?add

Khalīl Baydas first employed 'Palestinian' in 1898, followed by others like Salīm Qub'ayn and Najīb Naṣṣār by 1902. The term expanded through writings of various authors, including prominent Muslim families and Christian contributors.

What role did journalism play in shaping Palestinian national discourse?add

Journalism accelerated the conceptualization of a Palestinian identity by engaging readers in discussions about their socio-political realities. Articles frequently addressed issues like Zionism and societal conditions, catalyzing a shared collective consciousness among Palestinians.

About the authors
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Zachary J Foster
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Emanuel Beška
Slovak Academy of Sciences, Department Member

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Ayda Kayali

The American Historical Review, 1979

The Sanjak of Jerusalem was independent and directly linked to the Minister of the Interior in view of its importance to the three major monotheistic religions. It comprised the greater part of the territory of Palestine and more than three quarters of its population.(*1) The total number of villages was 672 with an estimated population of 457,5922 (*2) (not including the Beduins). The number of educational establishments in Palestine amounted to 956 most of which were primary and elementary schools. The overwhelming majority of the population was Sunni Muslim. Small numbers of Shi'a and Druzes existed, while around sixteen per cent of the population was Christian, mainly Greek Orthodox, Latin and Creek Catholics. Arthur Ruppin put the number of Jews living in Palestine in 1880 at 25,000. (*3) Both Jews and Christians were free to practice their religions and enjoyed a degree of autonomy through the Millet system.(*4) The majority of the Muslim population was engaged in agriculture and lived in villages. Apart from the peasants there was a considerable number of unsettled beduins, particularly in the vicinity of Beersheba. The urban population, both Muslim and Christian, was engaged in commerce, the crafts and modest agricultural industries, and some people held government posts. Prior to 1880 almost the entire Jewish population of Palestine lived in its Four Holy Cities': Jerusalem, Tiberias, Safad and Hebron. A sizable proportion of Palestine's Jewry was supported to a very large extent by the challukah system; the organised collection of funds in the Diaspora for the support of the pious scholars in Palestine. Never-the less, piety was not the sole characteristic occupation of Jews in Palestine. As early as 1851, the British Consul in Jerusalem reported that Jews are the majority of artisans-which included the glaziers, blacksmiths, watchmakers, tailors, shoemakers, book-binders.(*5) In addition they almost monopolised money-lending and the limited banking business in the country. Palestine and the Great Powers The effects of the decline of the Ottoman Empire were not confined to the growth of the power of the notables. As the Ottoman state became increasingly dependent on foreign protection vis a-vis other foreign powers as well as ambitious vassals, the European powers sought to establish direct links with the various populations of the Empire. Thus, France became the 'protector' of the Catholic communities in Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, while the Orthodox Christians came under Russian protection. The British Government's interest in Palestine was aroused by Napoleon's Palestinian Campaign (1799) which posed a threat to the British overland route to India. When Mohammad Ali of Egypt occupied Palestine and Syria and defeated the Ottoman armies, even threatening Constantinople itself, the British Government adopted a course of military intervention and was instrumental in driving the armies of Ibrahim Pasha (son of Mohammad Ali) back to Egypt. It was during that period (1838) that the British Government decided to station a British consular agent in Jerusalem and to open the first European Consulate in March 1839. Mohammad Ali's advance into Syria opened the 'Syrian Question'. New British policies were formulated as a result. To begin with, Britain sought to emulate the French and the Russian approach in the area. It was during the 1840s and 1850s that the British Government, which had no obvious proteges of its own, established a connection with the Jews in Palestine, the Druzes in Lebanon and the new Protestant churches. reconciliation:"(*27) In 1895, after talks with Palestinian Arab merchants, Najib al-Hajj, the editor of Abu-al-Hol of Cairo accused the Jewish colonists of expropriating the Arabs' means of livelihood. Both , Rashad Pasha, the Ottoman Mutasarrif, and the educated Palestinians were quick to perceive that the Zionists sought to establish a Jewish State in Palestine. Yusuf al-Khalidi " viewed the Zionist movement with grave concern: he recognised the existence of a Jewish problem in Europe...but he also foresaw that a Jewish state could not be established in Palestine without hostilities and bloodshed because of Arab opposition".(*28) The Mufti of Jerusalem, Muhammad Taher al-Husseini, fought Jewish immigration and agricultural settlement, and in 1897, he presided over a commission which scrutinised applications for transfer of land in the Mutasarrifiyya and so effectively stopped all purchases by Jews for the next few years."(*29) In 1900 there was a campaign of protest by means of signed petitions against Jewish purchases of land.(*30) Fears and Apprehensions In the same year, A Antebi, of the Jewish Colonial Association (a non Zionist institution) reported: The Zionists had made the Muslim population ill-disposed to all progress accomplished by the Jews. A year and a half later, illiterate Muslim peasants asked him, 'Is it time that the Jews wish to retake this country?' and in early 1902 the ill-will had spread to the Administrative Council, the law courts and government officials many of whom especially at lower levels were drawn from the population.(*31) Religious sentiments were an additional ground of resentment: Muslim sentiments in Jerusalem were reflected in the following statement made in 1903 by a young (and, it is reported not very fanatical) Arab: "We shall pour everything to the last drop of our blood rather than see our Haram Sharif fall into the hands of non Muslims".(*32) It is also worth noting that local government officials, Christians and educated Muslims, were interested in reading Zionist literature, and some of them even read Ha-Po 'el Ha-Za 'ir. This explains the state of alarm among the Arab population of Palestine. following the Seventh Zionist Congress in 1905, which resolved that Zionist efforts must be directed entirely towards Palestine. The Palestinians were not entirely alone in conceiving the implications of Jewish immigration and agricultural settlement in Palestine. Rashid Rida, one of the most prominent Islamic reformists and of the influential AI-Manar, recognised that the Jews were seeking national sovereignty in Palestine.(*33) In his book La reveil de la Nation Arabe (Paris, 1905), Najib Azoury warned that Zionists and Arab nationalist aspirations would come into conflict. Because Azouri called for Arab independence, copies of his manifesto had to be smuggled into Palestine as a result of which several Arab notables in Jaffa, Gaza and Ramla were imprisoned by the Ottoman authorities.(*34

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THE HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF THE FIRST PROGRESSIVE PALESTINIAN SCHOOL IN LATE OTTOMAN PALESTINE: KHALIL SAKAKINI AND AL-DUSTURIYYAH SCHOOL, 1909–1917
Kamal Moed

Journal of Holy Land and Palestine Studies, 2025

This article examines the story of a private Palestinian Arab school Al-Dusturiyyah that was established in Palestine during the end of Ottoman rule, in Jerusalem in 1909, by the influential educator Khalil Sakakini (al-Sakakini). My main argument is that this Arab national democratic school was ahead of its time and was a pioneer in terms of the educational principles and progressive educational philosophy that stood behind its establishment. Furthermore, I argue that it was a significant testimony to the awareness of some enlightened and progressive Palestinian educators to the weakness and failure of the Ottoman government schools in Palestine and to their vigorous efforts to establish an alternative modern Palestinian Arab Education. Very little has been written about this important and influential school. Hence the importance in writing this article as part of the serious effort made during the last few decades by Palestinian and non-Palestinian scholars to refute the malicious claim that in Palestine there was not a Palestinian people but a group of primitive divided people devoid of any culture or education.

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"Tales out of School: Palestinian Students in a Jewish Institution, 1870–1937" in Sarah Irving (ed.) The Social and Cultural History of Palestine Essays in Honour of Salim Tamari (Edinburgh University Press, 2023)
Dotan Halevy
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