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Menhirs of Portugal: All Quiet on the Western Front?

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Abstract

This paper seeks to provide an overview o f the menhirs of Portugal, highlighting the new information and interpretations that have emerged over the last ten years. The main focus is on the Central Alentejo, a region where the menhirs are both imposing and well preserved. The Portuguese menhirs must be understood within the dynamic context of Atlantic Europe and, in a broad sense, be related to the processes underlying the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in this zone. Finally, using a comparative logic that is more anthropological than historical, cross-cultural aspects of Portuguese menhirs are considered.

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  1. The paper reviews new insights on Portugal's menhirs, especially in Central Alentejo.
  2. Menhirs in Portugal date back to the Early Neolithic, with some controversial dating around 6000-5000 BC.
  3. Research shows a correlation between menhirs and Early Neolithic settlements, suggesting cultural significance.
  4. The study emphasizes the anthropomorphic interpretation of menhirs and their spatial relationships.
  5. Archaeoastronomical evidence links megaliths in Portugal to celestial events, enhancing their cultural context.
Figures (8)
Image
S Fig. | - Almendres, the biggest and the most complex of portuguese megalithic enclosures. The first menhirs to be listed in the archaeological bibliography, in the second half of the nineteenth century, were those of northern Portugal. These were followed by those of the Algarve (in the extreme south of the country). After a gap of several decades, the menhirs of Alentejo finally assumed an important
S Fig. | - Almendres, the biggest and the most complex of portuguese megalithic enclosures. The first menhirs to be listed in the archaeological bibliography, in the second half of the nineteenth century, were those of northern Portugal. These were followed by those of the Algarve (in the extreme south of the country). After a gap of several decades, the menhirs of Alentejo finally assumed an important
Fig. 2 - The enigmatic menhir of Prazo, found in the immediate vicinity of an Early Neolithic settlement (and a Roman village). At the other end of the chronological spectrum lies the alignment of Tera, a unique monument which was part of an Early Iron Age funerary complex. It is located near the Neolithic enclosure of Vale d'El Rei which may, in some way, have been its inspiration. The menhirs have an angular and elongated morphology that differs greatly from that found in older menhirs (Calado 2004). Surprisingly, the monument features striking similarities with the necropolis of Fossa, in Abruzzi, Italy (Cosentino et al.
Fig. 2 - The enigmatic menhir of Prazo, found in the immediate vicinity of an Early Neolithic settlement (and a Roman village). At the other end of the chronological spectrum lies the alignment of Tera, a unique monument which was part of an Early Iron Age funerary complex. It is located near the Neolithic enclosure of Vale d'El Rei which may, in some way, have been its inspiration. The menhirs have an angular and elongated morphology that differs greatly from that found in older menhirs (Calado 2004). Surprisingly, the monument features striking similarities with the necropolis of Fossa, in Abruzzi, Italy (Cosentino et al.
The range of types of standing stones (menhirs, alignments and megalithic enclosures) seems, in Portugal, confined to enclosures and menhirs, since the few documented alignments are dubious (eg menhir of Marco de Anta (Tondela, Viseu) (Gomes 1997), or are not Neolithic (eg the Tera alignment) (Calado 2004). Among the single or paired menhirs some, especially the smaller ones, may not be Neolithic. It is mainly the larger ones, some decorated and most shaped as "knife blades" (Calado 2004) that are assigned, using various criteria, to the Neolithic. All the Portuguese megalithic enclosures (except the Xarez monument whose _ highly _ creative reconstruction on a square ground plan was made in the 1970s) feature horseshoe-shaped plans (Figure 3). Horseshoe plans are also found to a large extent in Brittany. If each menhir signifies an ‘individual’, then Fig. 3 - Plans of the remains of the best preserved megalithic enclosures in Central Alentejo.
The range of types of standing stones (menhirs, alignments and megalithic enclosures) seems, in Portugal, confined to enclosures and menhirs, since the few documented alignments are dubious (eg menhir of Marco de Anta (Tondela, Viseu) (Gomes 1997), or are not Neolithic (eg the Tera alignment) (Calado 2004). Among the single or paired menhirs some, especially the smaller ones, may not be Neolithic. It is mainly the larger ones, some decorated and most shaped as "knife blades" (Calado 2004) that are assigned, using various criteria, to the Neolithic. All the Portuguese megalithic enclosures (except the Xarez monument whose _ highly _ creative reconstruction on a square ground plan was made in the 1970s) feature horseshoe-shaped plans (Figure 3). Horseshoe plans are also found to a large extent in Brittany. If each menhir signifies an ‘individual’, then Fig. 3 - Plans of the remains of the best preserved megalithic enclosures in Central Alentejo.
Fig. 4 - The « central menhirs » of the main Alentejan megalithic enclosures. One detail that has been undervalued in terms of interpretation is that within the largest and best- preserved enclosures (Almendres, Vale Maria do Meio, Portela Mogos, Tojal and _ Fontainhas) (Figure 4), there is always a larger menhir, centred in the western part of the inner space, with some displacement to the north. This "central" menhir, which is also present in some of the less well- preserved enclosures such as Sideral, Xarez, and Casas de Baixo, allows us, in a simple sociological interpretation, to infer social stratification that the monumen- . . Go tn leter atoalt caame ‘tr idamand Pay P é.. _
Fig. 4 - The « central menhirs » of the main Alentejan megalithic enclosures. One detail that has been undervalued in terms of interpretation is that within the largest and best- preserved enclosures (Almendres, Vale Maria do Meio, Portela Mogos, Tojal and _ Fontainhas) (Figure 4), there is always a larger menhir, centred in the western part of the inner space, with some displacement to the north. This "central" menhir, which is also present in some of the less well- preserved enclosures such as Sideral, Xarez, and Casas de Baixo, allows us, in a simple sociological interpretation, to infer social stratification that the monumen- . . Go tn leter atoalt caame ‘tr idamand Pay P é.. _
Fig. 5 - The plans of four megalithic enclosures (Portela de Mogos, Vale Maria do Meio, Tojal and Vale d’El Rei) su- perimposed on the plan of Almendres, with manipulation of the scale. In the Central Alentejo alone can we recognize, without major controversy, at least seven megalithic enclosures (Figure 4). All, in my opinion, are based - If alignments (long or short) did actually exist then at least some should have survived, as occurred with the Iron Age Tera alignment, even if, as in this case, all the menhirs were overturned. It should be noted that the surveys undertaken in the last two decades in the Central Alentejo that were targeted specifically on the issue of standing stones, collated data (published and unpublished) for about a hundred sites with menhirs and, in parallel, located more than 2500 sites of Neolithic and Chalcolithic date (dolmens, settlements, rock art, and isolated finds) (Calado 2004, v.3). This list is by no neans comprehensive but is largely representative.
Fig. 5 - The plans of four megalithic enclosures (Portela de Mogos, Vale Maria do Meio, Tojal and Vale d’El Rei) su- perimposed on the plan of Almendres, with manipulation of the scale. In the Central Alentejo alone can we recognize, without major controversy, at least seven megalithic enclosures (Figure 4). All, in my opinion, are based - If alignments (long or short) did actually exist then at least some should have survived, as occurred with the Iron Age Tera alignment, even if, as in this case, all the menhirs were overturned. It should be noted that the surveys undertaken in the last two decades in the Central Alentejo that were targeted specifically on the issue of standing stones, collated data (published and unpublished) for about a hundred sites with menhirs and, in parallel, located more than 2500 sites of Neolithic and Chalcolithic date (dolmens, settlements, rock art, and isolated finds) (Calado 2004, v.3). This list is by no neans comprehensive but is largely representative.
The domain of interpretation is for some a forbidden ground, a dangerous swamp or a non aedificandi area. For others who are more audacious, anything goes : a multivocal chorus too cacophonous to my ear. Leaving aside - with all respect - the many intelligent and creative interpretations produced by non- professionals, and considering only those stamped by academic imprimatur, I find that, on the issue of standing stones, there is no consensus, nor could there be, by definition. However, in this plurality of discourses, there are some more or less common denominators. One such involves anthropomorphism : many megalith specialists (Balbin and Bueno 1996 ; Barfield 1995; Beneteau 2000; Caubet 2002; D'Anna 2002a, b, c ; Calado 2004 ; Gomes 1997c ; Jorge and Jorge 1991, and so on) look on the menhirs as manifestations of proto-statuary, in which the anthropomorphic elements may be more or less explicit : face, shoulders, waist, arms... or just a silhouette stylized in its simplest form. We know, moreover, that the popular imagination, supposedly more naive and devoid of prejudices, has seen in the Fig. 6 - Interpretation of the remains of the Alto da Cruz monument.
The domain of interpretation is for some a forbidden ground, a dangerous swamp or a non aedificandi area. For others who are more audacious, anything goes : a multivocal chorus too cacophonous to my ear. Leaving aside - with all respect - the many intelligent and creative interpretations produced by non- professionals, and considering only those stamped by academic imprimatur, I find that, on the issue of standing stones, there is no consensus, nor could there be, by definition. However, in this plurality of discourses, there are some more or less common denominators. One such involves anthropomorphism : many megalith specialists (Balbin and Bueno 1996 ; Barfield 1995; Beneteau 2000; Caubet 2002; D'Anna 2002a, b, c ; Calado 2004 ; Gomes 1997c ; Jorge and Jorge 1991, and so on) look on the menhirs as manifestations of proto-statuary, in which the anthropomorphic elements may be more or less explicit : face, shoulders, waist, arms... or just a silhouette stylized in its simplest form. We know, moreover, that the popular imagination, supposedly more naive and devoid of prejudices, has seen in the Fig. 6 - Interpretation of the remains of the Alto da Cruz monument.
Fig. 7 - Excavation of the megalithic quarry of Murteiras (Evora, Portugal). In both cases, it is important to note that the outcrops used as quarries are prominent within their surrounding landscapes. For a complete interpretation of menhirs, of course, there are many other complementary approaches to consider. One such is the relationship between the menhirs and their materiality, particularly with regard to natural outcrops with menhir-like silhouettes, and with the quarry sites themselves. In the Central Alentejo, the dialogue between menhirs and natural outcrops seems to occur in two complementary ways : firstly, the monuments were implanted only in "gaps" without natural outcrops, often in different geological contexts, implying the transport of blocks over considerable distances ; secondly, the vast majority of the Early Neolithic Alentejan settlements were located close to the most conspicuous rocky outcrops of the region (Calado 2002). We have recently identified two sites with evidence for the extraction of megalithic blocks : one is the prehistoric settlement of Murteiras (Evora), where the negatives left by the removal of megalithic blocks were overlain by deposits of a Late Neolithic settlement (Figure 7). The size of the blocks extracted suggests that they were used in proto- megalithic graves (datable, generally, to between 4500 and 3500 BC).The second site, close to the menhir of Barrocal (one of the largest in the region), is an outcrop with a negative whose dimensions and shape correspond perfectly with the nearby menhir.
Fig. 7 - Excavation of the megalithic quarry of Murteiras (Evora, Portugal). In both cases, it is important to note that the outcrops used as quarries are prominent within their surrounding landscapes. For a complete interpretation of menhirs, of course, there are many other complementary approaches to consider. One such is the relationship between the menhirs and their materiality, particularly with regard to natural outcrops with menhir-like silhouettes, and with the quarry sites themselves. In the Central Alentejo, the dialogue between menhirs and natural outcrops seems to occur in two complementary ways : firstly, the monuments were implanted only in "gaps" without natural outcrops, often in different geological contexts, implying the transport of blocks over considerable distances ; secondly, the vast majority of the Early Neolithic Alentejan settlements were located close to the most conspicuous rocky outcrops of the region (Calado 2002). We have recently identified two sites with evidence for the extraction of megalithic blocks : one is the prehistoric settlement of Murteiras (Evora), where the negatives left by the removal of megalithic blocks were overlain by deposits of a Late Neolithic settlement (Figure 7). The size of the blocks extracted suggests that they were used in proto- megalithic graves (datable, generally, to between 4500 and 3500 BC).The second site, close to the menhir of Barrocal (one of the largest in the region), is an outcrop with a negative whose dimensions and shape correspond perfectly with the nearby menhir.

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FAQs

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What does the distribution of menhirs in Portugal reveal about regional research investment?add

The study indicates that menhirs in Northern Portugal are rarely studied, resulting in an atypical regional representation. Conversely, Central Alentejo and Western Algarve show higher research activity leading to more monumental and complex findings.

How reliable are the radiocarbon dates for the menhirs in southern Portugal?add

The paper highlights that only two radiocarbon dates exist, both challenged by contextual uncertainties. For instance, charcoal associated with the Meada menhir may not align chronologically with the menhir's erection.

What evidence suggests continuous use of menhirs throughout different historical periods?add

In the Bronze Age, menhirs in Central Alentejo show evidence of ritual activities, such as votive deposits. This continuity is also observed with Neolithic menhirs being reused in Early Iron Age contexts.

How do menhirs relate to Early Neolithic settlement patterns in Portugal?add

The research establishes a systematic coincidence between menhir distributions and Early Neolithic settlements, confirming cultural and ritual connections in the region. For example, excavations near Almendres revealed settlements dating to the Early Neolithic.

What are the implications of menhir design variations for social stratification?add

The presence of larger central menhirs in enclosures suggests social hierarchies, with dissimilarities correlating to emerging social complexity. This indicates that certain individuals or groups held more prominent positions within these early communities.

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Manuel Calado
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Related topics

  • Ethnoarchaeology
  • Megalithic Monuments
  • Archaeological Prospection
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