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Ethnic minorities in Estonia: past and present

(Paper delivered at the conference Multicultural Estonia in Helsinki, 26.12.1998)

Estonians have inhabited their territory for at least 5,000 years and are one of the oldest peoples in Europe. There are no verified data about prehistoric times, although we can speak about distinctly Estonian tribes and Estonian language (in those days known as the country tongue and the country people) starting from approximately the middle of the first millennium A.D. There are data about later ages which suggest that in the provinces and towns of Estonia members of other ethnic groups have always been represented, while the Estonian population has been numerically much larger. Now the situation has radically changed. There is such ethnic diversity in Estonia that we might speak of multinationalism here. Below, we shall take a closer look at ethnic groups who have lived side by side with Estonians and who might be termed minorities.

1. At the beginning of the first millennium A.D. there was no state or frontier in the political sense of the word on Estonian territory, the geographical areas of nationalities and languages being limited by natural boundaries (e.g. the Baltic Sea, the Gulf of Finland, Lake Peipus, marshlands and woodlands). Estonians met Votic people in the north-east, Russians in the south-east and Latvians and Livs in the south. The eastern boundary became established along the Narva River and Lake Peipus in the 1240s after Estonian territory was conquered by the Germans and the Danes. In addition to being a linguistic boundary, it marked a political, religious and cultural boundary between the Occident and the Orient existing to the present day. Political frontiers rarely follow ethnic or linguistic boundaries, and thus some Estonians happened to be in the Pskovian feudal republic in the 13th century (nowadays they are known as Russian Orthodox Setu people). In the 13th century the ethnic boundary between Latvians and Estonians was established in the south. Estonian settlement in the south reached farther than nowadays (to Lake Asti or Burtniek until the 16th century), until Latvian settlers moved the boundary northwards, pockets of Latvian-speaking people even reaching as far as the Viljandi area. The official frontier between Estonia and Latvia was not marked until 1920. To sum up, the established Estonian borders have tended to exclude Estonian areas rather than to include areas of neighbouring people.

2. This does not mean that the existing borders had prevented communication with other nationalities. Ties with neighbouring people and mixed settlement on borderlands were there to stay, but the emergence of other national groups within Estonian borders cannot be explained by neighbourly relations only. In the 13th century Estonian territory was conquered by German and Danish crusaders and Estonians lost control of their lands for more than 600 years. We should also recall that Estonian territory has repeatedly been a battleground in devastating wars: this has resulted in demographic crises and, consequently, immigration. For centuries people were distinguished by their status and language, and the idea of a nation came to be adopted only in the 19th century. National majority and minority issues did not become important until after the War of Freedom (1918-1920) when Estonia gained independence. Sovereignty made it possible to establish the proportions of different ethnic groups and settle issues connected with the minorities. Before the Second World War five minorities were officially distinguished: Russians, Germans, Swedes, Jews and Latvians.

A logical question follows:

3. Which ethnic groups can be considered minorities?

The Consultative Assembly of the European Council in its Recommendation (Strasbourg, 1993) defined a "national minority" as "a group of persons in a state who:

1. reside on the territory of that state and are citizens thereof
2. maintain longstanding, firm and lasting ties with that state
3. display distinctive ethnic, cultural, religious or linguistic characteristics
4. are sufficiently representative, although smaller in number than the rest of the population of that state or of a region of that state
5. are motivated by a concern to preserve together that which constitutes their common identity, including their culture, their traditions, their religion or their language."

Points b-e, which complement one another, emphasise the distinguishing features of ethnic groups to which citizenship is added as a legal-judicial characteristic. Ethnic groups who do not satisfy any of these conditions should be regarded as (recent) immigrants to the country.

The definition given by the Consultative Assembly relies on an understanding that people who inhabit their historic homelands - as either majorities or minorities - are characterised by certain socio-demographic patterns of behaviour and development distinct from those of more recent immigrants. As a rule, recent immigrants are individuals or families, who are only legally characterised by common ethnicity. In the longer perspective an ethnic community formed by this kind of migration process does not prove to be stable. Some of these people return, some of them go on to some other country, some of them augment the numbers of those who have already arrived.

4. As mentioned above, we can speak of minorities in Estonia starting from 1920 when after the War of Freedom an independent state was established. The 1922 census gave a fairly accurate overview of the Estonian population within the borders fixed by the Tartu treaty. Other ethnic groups were accepted as part of a democratic society alongside the majority population of Estonians and in 1925 the law of cultural autonomy was enacted. The application of principles laid down in the law of cultural autonomy presumes the general democratic right of a minority freely to determine their belonging to an ethnic group and actively to pursue their cultural policy. The principle of national equality was set down in "Manifesto of the Peoples of Estonia" (21 Feb. 1918) and according to the law of cultural autonomy the minorities were Jews, Latvians, Germans, Swedes and Russians, that is, ethnic groups in Estonia whose numbers exceeded 3,000.

1. Germans. The first wave of Germans - missionaries and merchants and soldiers - arrived on Estonian soil in the 13th century and ensured the status of rulers of the country after the Conquest. Until the 19th century the word German was used to refer to a higher status in society rather than to an ethnic origin. Since the days of the Hanseatic League a large number of artisans, clergymen and merchants had come to Estonia, to Hansa towns in particular, but German peasants did not settle in the countryside. The proportion of Germans in the population was 5-6%, going down to 2.5% in the early 20th century and below 2% in the 1920s. Germans took advantage of the law of cultural autonomy, establishing German societies, their own Deutschbaltische Partei, a professional theatre and schools (14 primary schools, 9 secondary schools and 5 gymnasiums); periodicals were issued and books of fiction published. The proportion of town-dwellers and intellectuals was remarkably high (5 student organizations functioned at the University of Tartu). Germans were well integrated into Estonian society: even at the end of the 1930s a quarter of all engineers, a fifth of clergymen and a sixth of doctors were of German origin.
   
2. Swedes. Starting from the 13-14th century, a little later than in western Finland, Swedish settlements were established on the islands and on the coast of West Estonia. Swedish fishermen were eager to settle in these areas, which were devoid of population because the Western Estonian islands are geologically of later origin and 2) the peasant uprising in North Estonia in 1343-1345 with the consequent reprisals had diminished the number of Estonian population. With the spread of the Swedish settlement into the mainland, land began to be cultivated. Swedish peasants made up a class of free tenants whose social status remained the same even during the so-called Swedish period in Estonia (1561-1710). The number of Swedes grew until the 20th century, during which the results of assimilation and resettlement in Sweden became noticeable. Estonian Swedes did not take advantage of the law of cultural autonomy, mostly for economic reasons. As they were concentrated in certain areas they had a Swedish-language local government and a Secretary of National Affairs in the Ministry of Education (Nikolai Blees, 1919-1940). Swedes in Estonia opened their own schools (for example, the P�rksi Agricultural and People's University was one of the first of its kind in Estonia), societies, a Swedish-language newspaper and a political organization, Svenska Folkf�rbundet. Estonian Swedes were disturbed by Estonization in the 1930s and the Soviet regime caused them much suffering. In 1939 Estonian Swedes were forced to leave the islands of Osmussaar, Naissaar and Pakri as Soviet military bases were established there.
   
3. Latvians. Because of the integrated province of Livonia and a vague ethnic boundary in the past it is very difficult to say what the number of Latvians on Estonian territory was. There have been pockets of Latvians in South Estonia, for example at Tsiistre in the parish of R�uge. Latvians in Estonia have never concentrated in a certain area; their numbers were larger in the counties of Valga, V�ru and Setu where they had their own schools and societies (in Valga, in M�isak�la, in Laura village in Setu, etc.). Latvians were not actively involved in anything but school and society life in spite of the opportunities that the law offered. The largest number of Latvians was registered in 1934 - 5,435. When in 1945 Petseri county was cut off from Estonia, 1,500 Latvians happened to be outside Estonian borders.
   
4. Russians. The arrival of Russians on Estonian territory dates back to the Livonian War in the 16th century. Later, in the 18th century, Russian fishing villages and villages of the persecuted Old Believers were established on the western shore of Lake Peipus. From the introduction of the Russification policy in the 1880s, we can speak of directed immigration (Russian-speaking civil servants, teachers, factory workers, etc.). In 1922, 91,000 Russians lived in Estonia. From these, 20,000 were Russian refugees, the rest were Estonian citizens. The majority of them were settled in East Estonia; traditionally they lived near Lake Peipus, but also on the other side of the Narva River and in Petseri county, which was annexed to Estonia by the Tartu Treaty. Russians did not take advantage of the opportunities offered by the law of cultural autonomy. They concentrated in certain areas where they had Russian-language government, Russian-language schools and societies. Religious life was well organised: there was an Orthodox monastery and an Orthodox nunnery. Russians did not take a particular interest in political life; their interest in culture was much greater. In the period between the two world wars Russians were the only minority whose numbers steadily increased.
   
5. Jews. Jews are not a very old minority. They came to Estonia in the middle of the 19th century after Jewish merchants, artisans and intellectuals were allowed to settle in the western provinces of tsarist Russia. Their numbers increased when pogroms started in Ukraine and Belorussia. Jews seized the opportunity that the law of cultural autonomy offered to them. The majority of them were town-dwellers (98%), so their major centres were Tallinn and Tartu. Synagogues (there were others in P�rnu and Narva), primary schools, libraries and Jewish organizations functioned there. There was a department of Jewish studies at the University of Tartu.

These five ethnic groups were considered minorities in Estonia. We must say, however, that until the Second World War, Estonian population remained fairly homogeneous: in 1934 Estonians made up 88.1% of the population. There were
120,000 people from 51 ethnic groups who were non-Estonian. The five minorities each amounted to more than 3,000 people, and all the rest came to 7,300.

5. The situation of the 1930s was changed radically as a result of the Second World War and its aftermath. The majority of Germans left Estonia in 1939-1941 at the call of the Fuehrer and the Baltic-German period in Estonia ended. The situation of the Swedes in 1939, when they were forced to move away from their traditional areas, was made worse by repressions which followed the 1940 coup. In 1941-44 approximately 7,000 Estonian Swedes left for Sweden. The number of Russians diminished fivefold: because of the war Russians resettled in Russia and in 1945 the frontiers were altered so that the areas of mixed population on the other side of the Narva River and Petseri county were no longer Estonian territory. The number of Latvians diminished by more than a half for the same reasons. As a result of German occupation Estonia lost its Jewish population. Approximately 1,000 Jews, who did not leave for the Soviet Union, perished. In 1945 Estonia had lost all its minorities and Estonians made up 97.3% of the whole population. This did not last long.
6. As a result of the Second World War the number of Estonians in their native land was reduced by 200,000 (deported to Russia, killed in action, fled to the West) and 2,334 square kilometres of Estonian territory was annexed to Russia. The demographic situation changed rapidly: by 1959 the proportion of Estonians had diminished from 97.3% to 74.6%, but the population had increased by 70,378. From the 1940s there was large-scale immigration of non-Estonians so that in 1989 602,381 non-Estonians from 140 different ethnic groups were counted. The immigration and national policies were directed from Moscow, which led to Estonians becoming a non-Russian language minority in their native land.

With the reinstitution of independence in 1991 the tide turned. Several ethnic groups supported Estonian independence in 1988-1991 as it meant a national awakening for them, too. Now we should honestly assess the present situation and the prospects of the Estonian population today without forgetting the minorities and numerous other ethnic groups.

7. What is the number of minority nationalities in Estonia today? There are several answers:

1. Since by 1945 Estonia had lost all its minorities, one way of looking at the present situation would be to regard all the ethnic groups as recent immigrants and say that there are no minorities in Estonia. The answer would be nil. This view does not seem to have any support.
   
2. As far as longstanding ties and continuity are concerned, we could say that there are two minorities in Estonia: Estonian Russians (approximately 40,000) and Finns (together with Ingrian Finns approximately 13,000). This view is shared by Estonian demographers. Finns settled in Estonia in the early ages and they have lived in Tallinn since the 14th century. A considerable immigration of Finns took place in the 16th and the 17th centuries and after the Great Northern War. In 1726-1728 there were more than 7,000 Finns in North Estonia and more in Tallinn and Narva. In the 19th century immigration was insignificant and in the 20th century immigrants who were mainly Ingrian Finns arrived from the historic Ingermanl�nd. In 1922, 401 Finns were counted in Estonia and in 1934 1,608, and after the Second World War the number was more than 16,000 people. The Finns have never concentrated in a particular area like the Russians and Swedes (except in the so-called Estonian-Ingermanl�nd). They had an organised school, religious and social life, but their number was not sufficient for them to apply for cultural autonomy. Today it is big enough for them to apply for minority status. In January 1998 Estonian Finns carried out a census; they are the first and so far the only ethnic group to apply for minority status under the new conditions.
   
3. In 1993 Estonia reinstituted the law of cultural autonomy. From the legal and cultural-political view we can say that there are five minority nationalities: Jews, Latvians, Swedes, Germans and Russians. All the rights conferred on these pre-war ethnic minorities have been restored irrespective of their present numbers.
   
4. If we add Finns to the above mentioned five, we can say that there are six minorities.
   
5. We can also mention gipsies and Tatars since the criteria of permanence seem to have met in their case. Gipsies have lived in Estonia since 1533 and, for example, the gipsies of Laiuse could be regarded as ethnic Estonian gipsies. In 1989 665 gipsies were registered in Estonia, but the Estonian Gipsy Society comprises 1,500. Tatars have lived in Estonia since the 1870s, and set up their organizations and religious groups in the 1920s. In 1989, 4,058 Tatars were counted in Estonia and in 1997 3,315.

The mention of these ethnic groups does not mean that they could apply for minority status, as other requirements have to be fulfilled (number, citizenship, preservation of national identity). In view of the needs and obligations of an ethnic group the first step would be the self-determination of a national minority within the framework of the law of cultural autonomy and efforts to achieve minority status.

As far as other ethnic groups are concerned (for example, Azerbaijanis, Georgians, Lithuanians, Poles, etc.) they have an opportunity to be culturally integrated into Estonian society, preserve their identity and develop their societies. To be eligible for minority status they must exist and continue for more than 50 years. Time and the continuity of several generations is needed for these processes of existence and adaptation.

20th September 1998

J�ri Viikberg

Appendix 1

Appendix 2

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