Gaa na ọdịnaya

Fred Singer

Shí Wikipedia, njikotá édémédé nke onyobulạ

 

 

Siegfried Fred Singer (September 27, 1924 - April 6, 2020) [1] bụbụ onye ọka mmụta sayensị na America a mụrụ na Austria na prọfesọ emeritus nke sayensị gburugburu na Mahadum Virginia, zụrụ azụ dịka onye physics ikuku. A maara ya maka ịjụ nkwekọrịta sayensị n'ọtụtụ okwu, gụnyere Mgbanwe ihu igwe, njikọ dị n'etiti UV-B na ọnụọgụgụ melanoma, mmebi ozone stratospheric nke chlorofluoro compounds, nke a na-ejikarị eme ihe dịka refrigerants, na ihe ize ndụ ahụike nke ịṅụ sịga.[2][3]

Ọ bụ onye edemede ma ọ bụ onye nchịkọta akụkọ nke ọtụtụ akwụkwọ, gụnyere Global Effects of Environmental Pollution (1970), The Ocean in Human Affairs (1989), Global Climate Change (1989), The Greenhouse Debate Continued (1992), na Hot Talk, Cold Science (1997). O deekwara akwụkwọ akụkọ Unstoppable Global Warming: Kwa afọ 1,500 Years (2007) na Dennis Avery, na Climate Change Reconsidered (2009) na Craig Idso.[4]

Onye na-abụ abụ nwere ọrụ dị iche iche, na-eje ozi na ndị agha, gọọmentị, na agụmakwụkwọ. O rụrụ ogbunigwe maka ndị agha mmiri US n'oge Agha Ụwa nke Abụọ, tupu ọ nweta Ph.D. ya na physics na Mahadum Princeton n'afọ 1948 ma rụọ ọrụ dịka onye na-ahụ maka mmekọrịta sayensị na U.S. Embassy na London. Ọ ghọrọ onye isi na nyocha mbara igwe mbụ, na-etinye aka na mmepe nke satellites na-ahụ maka ụwa, n'afọ 1962 guzobere National Weather Bureau's Satellite Service Center. Ọ bụ onye guzobere Mahadum nke Miami School of Environmental and Planetary Sciences n'afọ 1964, ma nwee ọtụtụ ọkwa gọọmentị, gụnyere osote osote onye nchịkwa maka Ngalaba Nchebe Gburugburu Ebe Obibi, na onye isi sayensị maka Ngalaba Transportation. Ọ bụ prọfesọ na Mahadum Virginia site n'afọ 1971 ruo n'afọ 1994, na Mahadum George Mason ruo n'afọ 2000.

N'afọ 1990, onye na-abụ abụ guzobere Science & Environmental Policy Project, n'afọ 2006 ụlọ ọrụ mgbasa ozi Canada kpọrọ ya aha dịka otu n'ime ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị ole na ole kwuru na ha na-emepụta nkwekọrịta na mgbanwe ihu igwe. [5] Onye na-abụ abụ kwuru, n'ụzọ megidere nkwekọrịta sayensị banyere mgbanwe ihu igwe, na ọ nweghị ihe aka ebe na okpomọkụ ụwa bụ n'ihi mmụba nke carbon dioxide ikuku sitere na mmadụ, nakwa na ụmụ mmadụ ga-erite uru ma ọ bụrụ na okpompe arịgo.[6] Ọ bụ onye na-emegide Kyoto Protocol, ma kwuo na ụdị ihu igwe anaghị adabere na eziokwu ma ọ bụ ihe akaebe. A na-ebo onye na-abụ abụ ebubo ịjụ ihe aka ebe sayensị nke ndị ọgbọ nyochara ma kwado n'onwe ya na nkwupụta ya gbasara ahụike ọha na eze na nsogbu gburugburu ebe obibi. [7] [5][8][9]

Mbido ndụ na agụmakwụkwọ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Amụrụ onye na-abụ abụ na Vienna, Austria, n'ezinụlọ ndị Juu. Nna ya bụ onye na-ere ọla na nne ya bụ onye ọrụ ụlọ. Mgbe Anschluss gasịrị n'etiti Nazi Germany na Austria n'afọ 1938, ezinụlọ ahụ gbapụrụ Austria, onye na-abụ abụ wee soro ụmụaka ndị Juu ndị ọzọ banye n'ụgbọ okporo igwe ụmụaka. Ọ gara England, ebe ọ biri na Northumberland, na-arụ ọrụ nwa oge dịka onye na-ahụ maka anya n'afọ iri na ụma. Mgbe ọtụtụ afọ gachara, ọ kwagara Ohio wee ghọọ nwa amaala America n'afọ 1944. Ọ natara nzere Bachelor nke Injinia Eletrik (B.E.E.) na Mahadum steeti Ohio n'afọ 1943. Ọ kụziri physics na Princeton mgbe ọ na-arụ ọrụ na masters ya na doctorate ya, na-enweta Ph.D. ya n'ebe ahụ n'afọ 1948. A kpọrọ akwụkwọ edemede doctoral ya, "The density spectrum and latitude dependence of extensive cosmic ray air shoers". Onye nlekọta ya bụ John Archibald Wheeler, na kọmitii edemede ya gụnyere J. Robert Oppenheimer na Niels Bohr. [10]

Ọrụ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

1950: Ndị Agha Mmiri nke United States

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Mgbe nna ya ukwu gasịrị, onye na-abụ abụ sonyeere ndị agha, na-arụ ọrụ maka ndị agha mmiri United States na agha ogbunigwe na mgbochi site n'afọ 1944 ruo n'afọ 1946. Mgbe ọ nọ na Naval Ordnance Laboratory, ọ mepụtara ihe arithmetic maka Kọmputa dijitalụ nke ọ kpọrọ "ụbụrụ eletrọniki". A tọhapụrụ ya n'afọ 1946 wee sonye na Upper Atmosphere Rocket Program na Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory na Silver Spring, Maryland, na-arụ ọrụ n'ebe ahụ ruo n'afọ 1950. O lekwasịrị anya na ozone, cosmic rays, na ionosphere, niile a tụrụ site na balloons na rocket ndị sitere na White Sands, New Mexico, ma ọ bụ site na ụgbọ mmiri na oké osimiri. Rachel White Scheuering dere na maka otu ọrụ iji gbaa rọket, ọ ji ụgbọ mmiri gaa Arctic, ma na-agbapụ rọket site na ụgbọ mmiri na equator.

Site n'afọ 1950 ruo n'afọ 1953, ọ nọ na U.S. Embassy na London dị ka onye ọrụ mmekọrịta sayensị na Office of Naval Research, ebe ọ mụrụ mmemme nyocha na Europe na radiation cosmic na physics nuklia. Mgbe ọ nọ n'ebe ahụ, ọ bụ otu n'ime ndị nnọchiteanya asatọ nwere nzụlite na ọrụ Ngwá agha ndị a na-eduzi iji kwuo okwu na Nzukọ nke anọ nke International Congress of Astronautics na Zurich n'ọnwa Ọgọstụ n'afọ 1953, n'oge, dịka The New York Times kọrọ, ọtụtụ ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị hụrụ ụgbọ elu dịka akụkọ sayensị zoro ezo.

Image
Satellite Singer's MOUSE, nke o mepụtara na mbido afọ 1950

Onye na-abụ abụ bụ otu n'ime ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị mbụ gbara ume ka a tụọ satellites ụwa maka nyocha sayensị n'oge afọ 1950. N'afọ 1951 ma ọ bụ n'afọ 1952, ọ tụrụ aro MOUSE ("Minimal Orbital Unmanned Satellite, Earth"), satịlaịtị 100 pounds (45 kg) nke ga-enwe Geiger counters maka ịlele ụzarị mbara igwe, mkpụrụ ndụ foto maka inyocha ụwa, telemetry electronics maka iziga data azụ n'ụwa, ngwaọrụ nchekwa data magnetic, na mkpụrụ ndụ ike anyanwụ. Ọ bụ ezie na MOUSE enwetụbeghị ụgbọelu, Baltimore News-Post kọrọ n'afọ 1957 na arụmụka Singer banyere mkpa maka satellites ka a na-ege ntị, US gaara emeri Russia site na ịmalite Satellite mbụ nke ụwa. Ọ tụkwara aro (ya na R. C. Wentworth) na enwere ike iji nyocha satellite nke ultraviolet backscatter mee ihe dịka usoro iji tụọ profaịlụ ozone ikuku.[11] E mechara jiri usoro a mee ihe na Satellite ihu igwe mbụ.[12]

1953: Mahadum nke Maryland

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Onye na-abụ abụ laghachiri na United States n'afọ 1953, ebe ọ malitere ọrụ dịka prọfesọ na physics na Mahadum Maryland, ma n'otu oge ahụ bụrụ onye nduzi nke Center for Atmospheric and Space Physics. Scheuering dere na ọrụ ya gụnyere ịme nnwale na rọket na satellites, remote sensing, radiation belts, magnetosphere, na meteorites. Ọ mepụtara usoro ọhụrụ nke ịtụba rọket na mbara igwe: ịgba ha site na ụgbọ elu na-efe elu, ma na-enweghị onye na-anya ụgbọelu. Ndị agha mmiri nabatara echiche ahụ ma Singer lekọtara ọrụ ahụ. Ọ natara White House Special Commendation site n'aka Onye isi ala Eisenhower n'afọ 1954 maka ọrụ ya.

Ọ ghọrọ otu n'ime ndị otu 12 nke American Astronautical Society, otu e guzobere n'afọ 1954 iji nọchite anya ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị na ndị injinia 300 na-eduga na mpaghara nke mgbọ ogbunigwe - ọ bụ otu n'etiti ndị otu asaa gbara arụkwaghịm n'ọnwa disemba 1956 mgbe usoro esemokwu banyere ntụziaka na njikwa nke otu ahụ.

N'ọnwa nọvemba afọ 1957, onye na-abụ abụ na ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị ndị ọzọ nọ na mahadum ahụ nwere ihe ịga nke ọma n'ịmepụta ma gbaa bọmbụ "Oriole" ọhụrụ atọ na Virginia Capes. Rocket ndị ahụ dị ihe na-erughị pounds 25 (11 kg) ma nwee ike iwu ya maka ihe dịka $ 2000. A chụpụrụ ha site na LSM Navy a gbanwere agbanwe, ha nwere ike iru n'ịdị elu nke 50,000 feet (15,000 m) ma nwee usoro telemetry zuru oke iji zipụ ozi gbasara cosmic, ultraviolet na X-rays. Onye na-abụ abụ kwuru na ịgba égbè ahụ debere "nnyocha nke mbara igwe dị elu na rọket dị elu n'otu ihe ahụ, ọnụahịa na mgbalị, dị ka ọnụọgụ ikuku dị ala na balloons ihu igwe. Site ugbu a gaa n'ihu, anyị nwere ike ịgba ọtụtụ puku rọket ndị a n'ụwa niile na obere ego".

N'ọnwa Febụwarị n'afọ 1958, mgbe ọ bụ onye isi nke otu cosmic ray nke ngalaba physics nke Mahadum Maryland, ọ natara otuto pụrụ iche site n'aka Onye isi ala Eisenhower maka "ihe ndị pụtara ìhè ọ rụzuru na mmepe nke satellites maka ebumnuche sayensị". N'ọnwupụta n'ọnwa Eprel n'afọ 1958. A họpụtara ya dịka onye ndụmọdụ na Kọmitii Nhọrọ Ụlọ na Astronautics na Space Exploration, nke na-akwadebe ịnwe ntị na aro Onye isi alaisenhower maka ụlọ ọrụ ọhụrụ iji jikwaa nyocha mbara igwe mee nchọpụta, otu ọnwa ka ọ nwetakwuo ihe nrite Distinguished Alumnus nke Mahadụ. Ọ ghọrọ prọfesọ zuru oke na Maryland n'afọ 1959, ma họrọ ya n'afọ ahụ site na United States Junior Chamber of Commerce dịka otu n'ime ụmụ okorobịa iri pụtara ìhè na mba ahụ.

N'ọnwa Jenụwarị 1960 na American Physical Society, Singer depụtara ọhụụ ya banyere ihe gburugburu ụwa nwere ike ịgụnye, na-agbasa ruo 40,000 kilomita (64,000 km) n'ime mbara igwe. A maara ya maka amụma mbụ ya banyere njirimara nke ụmụ irighiri eletrik ndị tọrọ n'ụwa, nke nchọpụta ndị e mechara chọpụta na nnwale satellite. N'ọnwa Disemba afọ 1960, ọ tụrụ aro ịdị adị nke mkpokoro ájá a na-ahụ anya gburugburu ụwa ihe dịka 600 ruo 1,000 kilomita (1,600 km) na mbara igwe, karịa nke e nwere obere ihe, micrometer ma ọ bụ obere n'obosara, na-agbasa 2,000 ruo 4,000 kilomita (6,400 km). N'ọnwa Maachị 1961, onye na-abụ abụ na onye ọzọ na-ahụ maka physics na Mahadum Maryland, E. J. Opik, nyere onyinye $ 97,000 site na NASA iji mee nyocha afọ atọ nke gas na uzuzu interplanetary.

1960: Echiche nke Phobos aka mere

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

N'akwụkwọ akụkọ Astronautics nke afọ 1960, onye na-abụ abụ kwuru na echiche Iosif Shklovsky na usoro ọnwa Phobos na-atụ aro na ọ bụ oghere, nke na-egosi na ọ bụ nke aka mere. onye na-abụ abụ dere, sị: "Nkwupụta m dị, ebe a ka m kwadoro Shklovsky, na ọ bụrụ na satellite na agbagharị n'ime dịka e si nweta ya site na nyocha nke mbara Egwu, mgbe ahụ enwere obere ihe ọzọ maka echiche ahụ na ọ bụ oghere ma ya mere e mere na Mars. Nnukwu 'ọ bụrụ' dị na nyocha nke astronomical; ha nwere ike ịbụ na ha na-ezighị ezi. Ebe ọ bụ na ha dabere na ọtụtụ usoro nke ndị na-ekiri dị iche iche na-ekiri ihe dị iche iche jiri ngwá ọrụ dị iche iche iche iche mee ihe, njehie nwere ike ịmetụta ha. " Foto site na nyocha malitere n'afọ 1972 na-egosi elu nkume sitere n'okike nwere oghere. Ndị na-ahụ maka Ufology na-aga n'ihu na-egosi onye na-abụ abụ dịka onye na-akwado echiche Phobos nke Shklovsky. [13]

Mag Time dere n'afọ 1969 na onye na-abụ abụ nwere mmasị ndụ ya niile na Phobos na ọnwa nke abụọ nke Mars, Deimos. Ọ gwara o'ge' na ọ nwere ike ikwe omume ịdọrọ Deimos n'ime usoro ụwa ka e wee nwee ike inyocha ya. N'oge nnọkọ mbara igwe mba ụwa n'ọnwa Mee 1966, nke ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị mbara igwe si United States na Soviet Union bịara, ọ bu ụzọ kwuo na ịdakwasị ndị mmadụ n'ọnwa Martian ga-abụ nzọụkwụ ezi uche dị na ya mgbe ndị mmadụ rutere n'ọnwụrụ ụwa. O kwuru na obere nha nke Phobos na Deimos - ihe dịka iri na anọ na asatọ (23 na 13 km) n'obosara na ikike ndọda nke sub milli-g - ga-eme ka ọ dịrị ụgbọ mbara igwe mfe ịdakwasị ma bido ọzọ.

1962: National Weather Center na Mahadum Miami

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

N'afọ 1962, oge ọ nọ na ezumike na mahadum ahụ, a kpọrọ Singer dịka onye nduzi mbụ nke ọrụ satellite ihu igwe maka National Weather Satellite Center, nke bụzi akụkụ nke National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, ma duzie mmemme maka iji satellites ịkọ ihu igwe. Ọ nọrọ ebe ahụ ruo n'afọ 1964. Ọ gwara magazin Time n'afọ 1969 na ọ na-atọ ya ụtọ ịgagharị. "Njem ọ bụla nyere m echiche ọhụrụ", ka o kwuru. "Ọ bụrụ na m nọdụrụ ala, ma eleghị anya m ka na-atụle ụzarị mbara igwe, isiokwu nke thesis m na Princeton. Nke ahụ bụ ihe na-eme ọtụtụ ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị. " Mgbe ọ kwụsịrị dịka onye nduzi, ọ natara ihe nrite Gold Medal nke Ngalaba Azụmaahịa maka Ọrụ Federal.

N'afọ 1964, ọ ghọrọ onye isi mbụ nke Ụlọ Akwụkwọ nke Environmental and Planetary Sciences na University of Miami n'afọ 1964, ụlọakwụkwọ mbụ nke ụdị ya na mba ahụ, raara onwe ya nye nyocha nke afọ.. N'ọnwa Disemba 1965, akwụkwọ akụkọ The New York Times kọrọ banyere otu ogbako Singer kwadoro na Miami Beach n'oge nke ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị ise, na-arụ ọrụ n'adabereghị onwe ha, gosipụtara nyocha nke na-egosi ihe ha kwenyere na ọ bụ ihe foduru nke ọkụ primordial nke mere mgbe a mụrụ eluigwe na ụwa..

1967–1994

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

N'afọ 1967, ọ nakweere ọkwa osote odeakwụkwọ na Ngalaba Na-ahụ Maka Ihe Ndị Dị n'Ime Obodo nke United States, ebe ọ na-ahụ maka ịdị mma mmiri na nyocha. Mgbe e guzobere U.S. Environmental Protection Agency na 1970, ọ ghọrọ osote osote onye nchịkwa iwu ya. [14]

Singer accepted a professorship in Environmental Sciences at the University of Virginia in 1971, a position he held until 1994,[15] where he taught classes on environmental issues such as ozone depletion, acid rain, climate change, population growth, and public policy issues related to oil and energy. [citation needed] In 1987 he took up a two-year post as chief scientist at the U.S. Department of Transportation, and in 1989 joined the Institute of Space Science and Technology in Gainesville, Florida where he contributed to a paper on the results from the Interplanetary Dust Experiment using data from the Long Duration Exposure Facility satellite. When he retired from Virginia in 1994, he became Distinguished Research Professor at the Institute for Humane Studies at George Mason University until 2000.

Naomi Oreskes na Erik Conway na-ekwu na Singer tinyere aka na mbọ gọọmentị Reagan na-agba iji gbochie usoro nchịkwa iji belata mmiri ozuzo acid.

Arụmụka ọha na eze

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Ide ihe

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

N'oge niile ọ na-arụ ọrụ agụmakwụkwọ, Singer na-ede ugboro ugboro na akwụkwọ akụkọ, gụnyere The New York Times, The Washington Post, na Wall Street Journal, na-ekwukarị n'ọnọdụ ndị na-ese okwu n'echiche. Ọnọdụ ya n'ozuzu ya bụ otu n'ime enweghị ntụkwasị obi na iwu gọọmentị etiti na nkwenye siri ike na ịdị irè nke ahịa nweere onwe ya. O kwenyere na ihe Rachel White Scheuering na-akpọ "nwere onwe ahịa gburugburu ebe obibi": na ụkpụrụ ahịa na ihe mkpali kwesịrị ezu iji duga na nchedo gburugburu ebe obibi na nchekwa nke ihe onwunwe. Isiokwu ndị a na-ahụkarị n'isiokwu ya bụ ike, mmachibido iwu mmanụ, OPEC, Iran, na ọnụahịa na-arị elu. N'ime afọ ndị 1970 niile, dịka ọmụmaatụ, o belatara echiche nke Nsogbu ike ma kwuo na ọ bụ ihe omume mgbasa ozi.[7] N'ọtụtụ akwụkwọ na 1990s na 2000s, ọ kpughere ọnọdụ ndị ọzọ megide isi, na-ajụ njikọ dị n'etiti UV-B na ọnụọgụ melanoma, na nke dị n'agbata CFCs na ọnwụ ozone stratospheric.

YArụmụka ọha na eze nke Singer nwetara ọtụtụ nkatọ bụ maka anwụrụ ọkụ na okpomọkụ ụwa. Ọ jụrụ njikọ dị n'etiti anwụrụ ọkụ na ọrịa kansa akpa ume, ọ bụkwa onye na-emegide echiche sayensị gbasara Mgbanwe ihu igwe; ọ rụrụ ụka na enweghị ihe akaebe na mmụba nke carbon dioxide nke ụmụ mmadụ na-emepụta na-akpata okpomọkụ ụwa na okpomọkụ nke ụwa agbanweela mgbe niile.[6] Ihe ngosi CBC Fifth Estate na 2006 jikọtara arụmụka abụọ a, na-akpọ Singer dị ka onye ọkà mmụta sayensị nke rụrụ ọrụ dị ka onye ndụmọdụ maka ụlọ ọrụ na mpaghara abụọ ahụ, ma ọ bụ kpọmkwem ma ọ bụ site na ụlọ ọrụ mmekọrịta ọha na eze.[5] Naomi Oreskes na Erik Conway kpọrọ Singer n'akwụkwọ ha, Merchants of Doubt, dị ka otu n'ime ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị atọ na-emegide onwe ha - tinyere Fred Seitz na Bill Nierenberg - bụ ndị na-etinye onwe ha n'ime arụmụka ọha na eze banyere okwu sayensị na-ese okwu, na-etinye ha n'ọnọdụ dị ka ndị na-enwe obi abụọ, echiche ha na-enweta ike n'ihi na mgbasa ozi na-enye ha oge hà nhata n'ihi echiche nke ikpe ziri ezi.[16]

Dịka David Biello na John si kwuo na Scientific American, a maara onye na-abụ abụ nke ọma maka ịgọnahụ ihe ize ndụ ahụike nke ịṅụ sịga. O sonyere n'afọ 1994 dịka onye edemede na onye nyocha nke akụkọ banyere okwu ahụ site na Alexis de Tocqueville Institution, ebe ọ bụ onye isi. Akụkọ ahụ katọrọ Ngalaba Na-ahụ Maka Nchebe Gburugburu Ebe Obibi (EPA) maka nyocha ha n'afọ 1993 banyere ihe ize ndụ cancer nke ịṅụ sịga, na-akpọ ya "sayensị mkpofu". Onye na-abụ abụ gwara CBC's Ụlọ nke ise n'afọ 2006 na ọ kwụsiri ike n'ọnọdụ na EPA "esiri data" iji gosi na anwụrụ ọkụ nke abụọ na-akpata ọrịa kansa akpa ume. CBC kwuru na ego ụtaba akwụla ụgwọ maka nyocha onye na-abụ abụ na nkwalite ya, nakwa na ọ bụ APCO haziri ya. Onye na-abụ abụ gwara CBC na ọ dịghị ihe dị iche ebe ego ahụ si. "Ha anaghị ebu akwụkwọ ozi na akwụkwọ ego dollar na-asị 'Nke a sitere na ụlọ ọrụ ụtaba,'" ka o kwuru. "N'ọnọdụ ọ bụla amaghị m banyere ya, ajụghịkwa m APCO ebe ha na-enweta ego ha. Nke ahụ abụghị azụmahịa m. "[5]

N'akwụkwọ ozi n'afọ 2003 degara Financial Times, Onye na-abụ abụ dere na "enweghị ihe akaebe doro anya na ihu igwe ụwa na-ekpo ọkụ n'ezie."[17] N'afọ 2006, CBC's Fifth Estate kpọrọ onye na-abụ abụ dị ka otu n'ime obere ìgwè ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị mepụtara ihe akwụkwọ akụkọ ahụ kpọrọ nkwụsị nke na-emebi nzaghachi ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na okpomọkụ ụwa. .[5] N'afọ sochirinụ ọ pụtara na akwụkwọ akụkọ British Channel 4 The Great Global Warming Swindle. Onye na-abụ abụ na-arụ ụka na ọ nweghị ihe akaebe na-egosi na mmụba nke carbon dioxide nke ụmụ mmadụ na-emepụta na-akpata okpomoku zuru ụwa ọnụ, na ọ bụrụ na okpomọkụ ebili na ọ ga-adị mma maka mmadụ. Ọ gwara CBC: "Ọ na-ekpo ọkụ otu puku afọ gara aga karịa ka ọ dị taa. Vikings biri Greenland. Nke ahụ ọ dị mma ma ọ bụ ihe ọjọọ? Echere m na ọ dị mma. Ha na-eto mmanya na England, n'ebe ugwu England. echere m na nke ahụ dị mma. Ma ọ dịkarịa ala ụfọdụ ndị na-eche otú ahụ." "Anyị na-etinyekwu carbon dioxide na ikuku, "ka ọ gwara Daily Telegraph na 2009. Otú ọ dị, ikuku dị nnọọ mgbagwoju anya na mmadụ enweghị ike ịrụ ụka na nnị n'ihi na CO2 bụ gas na-ekpo ọkụ na-akpat okpomọkụ."[6] O kwenyere na ndị na-ahụ maka gburugburu ebe obibi na-emebiga ihe ókè na-ekwubiga okwu ókè. "Mgbalị dị n'okpuru ebe a yiri ka ọ bụ iji okpomọkụ zuru ụwa ọnụ dị ka ihe ngọpụ iji belata iji ike eme ihe," ka o kwuru. "Ọ dị nnọọ mfe: ọ bụrụ na ị belata iji ike eme ihe, mgbe ahụ, ị na-ebelata ọganihu akụ na ụba. Ma kwere ya ma ọ bụ na ọ bụghị, e nwere ndị mmadụ n'ụwa kwenyere na anyị agafewo oke na ụba akụ na ụba."

Echiche ndị na-agụ egwú na-emegide nkwekọrịta sayensị banyere mgbanwe ihu igwe, [18] [19] ebe enwere nkwekọrịta siri ike maka okpomọkụ ụwa nke mmadụ kpatara, yana njikọ dị n'etiti oke carbon dioxide na okpomọkụ nke ụwa, yana nkwekọrịta na mgbanwe dị otú ahụ na ihu igwe ga-enwe ihe dị ize ndụ. [20][21] N'afọ 2005, magazin nne Jones kọwara Singer dị ka "nna nna nke ịGọnahụ okpomọkụ ụwa". Otú ọ dị, onye na-abụ abụ kọwara onwe ya dị ka "onye na-enwe obi abụọ" kama ịbụ "onye na'agọnahụ" mgbanwe ihu igwe ụwa.[22]

N'afọ 1990, onye na-abụ abụ guzobere Science & Environmental Policy Project (SEPP) iji rụrịta ụka megide usoro mgbochi megide okpomọkụ ụwa. Mgbe 1991 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Earth Summit, onye na-abụ abụ malitere ide ma kwuo okwu iji mee ka obi abụọ na sayensị. O buru amụma na ọdachi akụ na ụba sitere na mgbochi ọ bụla na ojiji mmanụ ala, ma kwuo na ụwa okike na usoro ihu igwe ya dị mgbagwoju anya ma bụrụ nke a na-aghọtaghị nke ọma, nakwa na a maghị ihe gbasara mgbanwe okpomọkụ site n'oké osimiri gaa na ikuku, ma ọ bụ ọrụ igwe ojii. Ka nkwekọrịta sayensị na-eto, ọ gara n'ihu na-arụ ụka site na ọnọdụ na-eleghara anya. Ọ katọrọ ụdị ihu igwe nke na-ebu amụma okpomọkụ ụwa ugboro ugboro. N'afọ 1994, o jiri nsonaazụ ihe nlereanya tụnyere okpomọkụ a hụrụ ma chọpụta na okpomọkụ e buru n'amụma maka afọ 1950 rụọ afọ 1980 si na okpompe nke mere n'ezie, nke o kwubiri na kọlụm ya na The Washington Times - na isiokwu nke ụbọchị ahụ "Mkpesa ihu igwe na-ada n'okpuru ọkụ Sayensị na-egbuke egbuke" - na ụdị ihu igwe adịghị mma. N'afọ 2007, ọ rụkọtara ọrụ na nyocha nke chọpụtara na ọnọdụ okpomọkụ tropospheric nke ụdị "Ihu igwe nke narị afọ nke 20"" dị iche na nyocha satellite site na okpukpu abụọ nke ihe nlereanya ahụ bụ ejighị n'aka.

Rachel White Scheuering dere na, mgbe SEPP malitere, ọ nwere njikọ na Washington Institute for Values in Public Policy, ụlọ ọrụ na-eche echiche nke onye isi Unification Church Sun Myung Moon guzobere. Akụkọ n'afọ 1990 maka Cato Institute gosipụtara onye na-abụ abụ dịka onye nduzi nke ọrụ sayensị na iwu gburugburu ebe obibi na Washington Institute for Values in Public Policy, na ezumike site na Mahadum Virginia.[23] Scheuering dere na Singer akwụsịla mmekọrịta ya na ụlọ ọrụ ahụ, ụlọ ọrụ na ụlọ ọrụ mmanụ kwadoro ya.[7] O dere na ọ bụ onye ndụmọdụ a na-akwụ ụgwọ maka ARCO, ExxonMobil, Shell, Sun Oil Company, na Unocal, nakwa na SEPP natara enyemaka site na ExxonMobil. Singer kwuru na mmekọrịta ego ya emetụtaghị nyocha ya. Scheuering na-ekwu na nkwubi okwu ya kwekọrọ na ọdịmma akụ na ụba nke ụlọ ọrụ ndị na-akwụ ya ụgwọ, na ụlọ ọrụ ndị ahụ chọrọ ịhụ mbelata na nchịkwa gburugburu ebe obibi.[7]

N'ọnwa Ọgọstụ afọ 2007, Newsweek kọrọ na n'ọnwa Eprel afọ 1998, mmadụ iri na abụọ sitere n'ihe ọ kpọrọ "ngwunye ịgọnahụ" zutere n'isi ụlọ ọrụ American Petroleum Institute na Washington. Nzukọ ahụ gụnyere otu onye na-abụ abụ, George C. Marshall Institute, na ExxonMobil. Newsweek kwuru na, dị ka akwụkwọ ozi dị peeji asatọ nke e wepụtara, nzukọ ahụ tụrụ aro mkpọsa nde $ 5 iji mee ka ọha na eze kwenye na sayensị nke okpomọkụ ụwa bụ arụmụka na ejighị n'aka. A kọọrọ ndị nta akụkọ atụmatụ ahụ ma ọ dịghị mgbe a rụzuru ya. N'izu mgbe akụkọ ahụ gasịrị, Newsweek bipụtara echiche dị iche site n'aka Robert Samuelson, otu n'ime ndị na-ede akwụkwọ akụkọ ya, onye kwuru na akụkọ nke igwe na agọnahụ ego bụ nke e chepụtara echepụta ma na-eduhie eduhie. ABC News kọrọ na Machị 2008 na onye na-abụ abụ kwuru na ọ bụghị na ụgwọ ọrụ nke ụlọ ọrụ ike, mana ọ kwetara na SEPP natara otu onyinye ebere a na-arịọghị arịrịọ nke $ 10,000 site na ExxonMobil, nakwa na ọ bụ otu pasent nke onyinye niile natara. Onye na-abụ abụ kwuru na njikọ ya na Exxon dịka ịnọ na ndepụta ozi ha karịa ịnwe ọnọdụ a kwụrụ ụgwọ. Mmekọrịta ahụ emebiwo nyocha Singer n'etiti ndị otu sayensị, dị ka Scheuering si kwuo. Onye omebe iwu Lynn Rivers jụrụ ntụkwasị obi onye na-abụ abụ n'oge a na-ege ya ntị n'afọ 1995, na-ekwu na o nweghị ike ibipụta ihe ọ bụla na akwụkwọ sayensị a na-enyocha ndị ọgbọ ya maka afọ 15 gara aga, ma e wezụga otu nkọwa teknụzụ. [24]

Nkatọ nke IPCC

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

  N'afọ 1995, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) wepụtara akụkọ na-egosipụta nkwekọrịta Sayensị na nguzozi nke ihe akaebe na-egosi na enwere mmetụta mmadụ a na-ahụ anya na ihu igwe ụwa. Onye na-abụ abụ ji akwụkwọ ozi zaghachi na sayensị na-ekwu na akụkọ IPCC gosipụtara ihe ahọpụtara. O dere, sị: "Nchịkọta ahụ ekwughị na afọ iri na asatọ nke data satellite ihu igwe nke na-egosi obere ọnọdụ oyi zuru ụwa ọnụ, na-emegide ụdị niile nke okpomọkụ ihu igwe. " Scheuering dere na onye na-abụ abụ kwetara na thermometers nke elu site na ụlọ ọrụ ihu igwe na-egosi okpomọkụ, mana ọ na-ekwu na satellites na-enye data ka mma n'ihi na nha ha na-ekpuchi ogidi na ogidi. Dịka Edward Parson na Andrew Dessler si kwuo, data satịlaịtị egosighi okpomọkụ elu ozugbo, mana a ghaghị idozi ya site na iji ụdị. Mgbe emere mgbanwe maka ihe omume ndị na-agafe agafe, data ahụ gosipụtara obere okpomọkụ, na nyocha tụrụ aro na ọdịiche dị n'etiti data elu na nke satellite bụ nsogbu dị ka odịiche dị na satellite.

Onye na-abụ abụ dere "Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change in the U.S." n'afọ 1995, na emelite ya n'afọ 1997 iji gbaghaa Kyoto Protocol. Nkwekọrịta Kyoto bụ nsonaazụ nke mgbakọ mba ụwa nke e mere na Kyoto, Japan, n'oge ọtụtụ mba mepere emepe kwetara belata gas ha na-eme ka okpomọkụ. Nkwupụta onye na-abụ abụ na-agụ, sị: "Ike dị mkpa maka uto akụ na ụba ... Anyị ghọtara ihe na-akpali iwepụ ihe a na-eche na ọ bụ ihe na-eme ka mgbanwe ihu igwe nwee ike; mana anyị kwenyere na Kyoto Protocol - iji belata ikuku carbon dioxide site na naanị akụkụ nke obodo ụwa dị ize ndụ, ọ naghị arụ ọrụ, ma na-ebibi akụ na ụba na ọrụ na ụkpụrụ ndụ. "

Scheuering dere na onye na-abụ abụ gbasara nke a na United States na Europe ma kpọkọta 100 ndị bịanyere aka, ọ bụ ezie na ọ na-ekwu na a na-enyo ụfọdụ n'ime asambodo ndị bịa nyekwara aka enyo. Ọ dịkarịa ala 20 bụ ndị nta akụkọ ihu igwe televishọn, ụfọdụ enweghị nzere sayensị, na ụbọchị iri na anọ edepụtara dịka ndị prọfesọ n'ekwughị otu mpaghara. Dịka Scheuering si kwuo, ụfọdụ n'ime ha mechara kwuo na ha kwenyere na ha na-abịanye aka n'akwụkwọ iji kwado ime ihe megide mgbanwe ihu igwe.

Onye na-abụ abụ guzobere Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change (NIPCC) n'afọ 2004 mgbe 2003 United Nations Climate Change Conference na Milan. NIPCC haziri ogbako ihu igwe mba ụwa na Vienna n'ọnwa eprel afọ 2007, [25] iji nye ihe ha kpọrọ nyocha onwe onye nke ihe akaebe maka mgbanwe ihu igwe. Singer kwadebere akụkọ NIPCC akpọrọ "Nature, Not Human Activity, Rules the Climate," nke Ụlọ Ọrụ Heartland Institute bipụtara n'ọnwa maachị 2008. ABC Ozi kwuru n'otu ọnwa ahụ na ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị ihu igwe a na-akpọghị aha sitere na NASA, Stanford, na Princeton bụ ndị gwara ABC okwu banyere akụkọ ahụ jụrụ ya dị ka "ihe nzuzu efu". N'akwụkwọ ozi mkpesa o degaara ABC Ozi, Singer kwuru na akwụkwọ ha jiri "okwu ajọ mbunobi, eziokwu gbagọrọ agbagọ, nkwutọ, na nkwutọ na-amaghị aha".

N'ọnwa Septemba 18, 2013, e bipụtara akụkọ nke anọ nke NIPCC, nke akpọrọ Climate Change Reconsidered II: Physical Science.[26] Dịka akụkọ NIPCC gara aga, ndị na-ahụ maka gburugburu ebe obibi katọrọ ya mgbe e bipụtara ya; dịka ọmụmaatụ, David Suzuki dere na ọ "jupụtara na nkwupụta a na ekwughị, gụnyere na ikuku carbon dioxide dị mma n'ihi na ha na-akpali ndụ".[27] Mgbe akụkọ ahụ nwetara akụkọ dị mma site n'aka Doug McKelway nke Fox News Channel, ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị ihu igwe Kevin Trenberth na Michael Oppenheimer katọrọ akụkọ a, Trenberth kpọrọ ya "ọrụ mgbasa ozi na-enweghị isi" na Oppenheims na-akpọ ya "ihe na-ezighi ezi". [28][29]

Ọnọdụ ihu igwe

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

N'ọnwa Disemba afọ 2009, mgbe esemokwu email nke Climatic Research Unit gasịrị, onye na-abụ abụ dere otu echiche maka Reuters nke o kwuru na ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị ejirila Nnyocha ndị ọgbọ mee ihe n'ụzọ na-ezighị ezi, rụgidere ndị editọ ka ha gbochie mbipụta nke echiche ndị ọzọ, ma mebie ndị mmegide. O kwukwara na ozi ịntanetị ndị a na-agbapụta gosipụtara na "ihe ọmụma okpomọkụ nke IPCC dabere na ya dabere na data na algọridim gbagọrọ agbagọ nke ha na ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị agaghị ekerịta. " O kwuru na ihe omume ahụ kpughere usoro na-adịghị mma, nakwa na ọnọdụ okpomọkụ na-aga n'okpuru ọbụna ka gas ndị na-ekpo ọkụ dị ka CO<sub id="mwAvA">2</sub> na-abawanye na ikuku. O dere, sị: "Njikọ a na-adịghị mma na-emegide nsonaazụ nke ụdị nke IPCC dabere na ya ma na-egosi na okpomọkụ ụwa nke mmadụ (AGW) dị obere," na-ekwubi "ma ugbu a ọ na-apụta na okpomanya ụwa nwere ike ịbụ 'mmadụ mere' n'ezie. " Kọmitii British House of Commons Science and Technology Select mechara wepụta akụkọ nke wepụrụ ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị, [30] na kọmitii asatọ nyochara ebubo ahụ, na-enweghị ihe aka ebe nke aghụghọ ma ọ bụ omume ọjọọ sayensị.

Ọnwụ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

N'ọnwa Eprel 6, 2020, onye na-abụ abụ nwụrụ n'ụlọ ndị agadi na Rockville, Maryland. [1]

Akwụkwọ ndị a họọrọ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
  1. 1 2 "Dr. S. Fred Singer, R.I.P.", The Heartland Institute. Retrieved on April 7, 2020. (in en)
  2. ↑ Dunlap (2013). "Climate Change Denial Books and Conservative Think Tanks: Exploring the Connection". The American Behavioral Scientist 57 (6): 699–731. DOI:10.1177/0002764213477096. PMID 24098056. 
  3. ↑ Gillis. "Naomi Oreskes, a Lightning Rod in a Changing Climate", The New York Times, June 15, 2015.
  4. ↑ S. Fred Singer, Ph.D.. Archived from the original on January 25, 2009. Retrieved on March 15, 2014.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 The Denial Machine. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (November 15, 2006). Archived from the original on October 26, 2007.
  6. 1 2 3 Louise Gray. "Fred Singer to speak at climate change sceptics conference", Telegraph Media Group, November 18, 2009. Retrieved on October 4, 2019.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "scheuering2004".
  8. ↑ Oreskes (2010). Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming. New York: Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 9781596916104. 
  9. ↑ Singer (2003). "The Revelle-Gore Story: Attempted Political Suppression of Science", in Gough: Politicizing Science: The Alchemy of Policymaking. Hoover Press. Retrieved on May 10, 2007. 
  10. ↑ Singer, S. Fred (1949). "The density spectrum and latitude dependence of extensive cosmic ray air showers". American Doctoral Dissertations. 
  11. ↑ Singer (June 1957). "A method for the determination of the vertical ozone distribution from a satellite". J. Geophys. Res. 62 (2): 299–308. DOI:10.1029/JZ062i002p00299. ISSN 2156-2202. 
  12. ↑ (2000) in Zerefos: Chemistry and Radiation Changes in the Ozone Layer, Nato Science Series C: Mathematical and Physical Sciences. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. DOI:10.1007/978-94-011-4353-0. ISBN 978-0-7923-6513-6. “Recent studies have demonstrated a link between ozone changes caused by human activities and changing UV levels at the Earth's surface, as well as a link to climate through changes in radiative forcing and links to changes in chemical composition.” 
  13. ↑ Andrew Kelleher, "Phobos: the odd moon of Mars", in Alienation News #211 Nov 2002.. Archived from the original on September 2, 2004. Retrieved on May 26, 2010.
  14. ↑ S. Fred Singer (1924 - 2020) (en-US). The Heartland Institute. Retrieved on 2025-03-27.
  15. ↑ S. FRED SINGER (1924 - 2020) (en-US). Heartland Institute. Retrieved on October 31, 2019.
  16. ↑ Brown (2010-06-01). 'Merchants of Doubt' delves into contrarian scientists. USA Today. Archived from the original on 2010-06-01. Retrieved on 2023-08-04.
  17. ↑ Singer. "Climate concern is just a tax ruse", Financial Times, November 26, 2003.
  18. ↑ Oreskes (2007). "The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change: How Do We Know We’re Not Wrong?", in DiMento: Climate Change: What It Means for Us, Our Children, and Our Grandchildren. The MIT Press, 65–66. ISBN 978-0-262-54193-0. 
  19. ↑ CLIMATE CHANGE 2014: Synthesis Report. Summary for Policymakers. IPCC. Archived from the original on February 27, 2015. Retrieved on March 7, 2015. “The evidence for human influence on the climate system has grown since the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4). It is extremely likely that more than half of the observed increase in global average surface temperature from 1951 to 2010 was caused by the anthropogenic increase in greenhouse gas concentrations and other anthropogenic forcings together”
  20. ↑ Stern (2007). The Economics of Climate Change — The Stern Review. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-70080-1. Retrieved on February 19, 2014. 
  21. ↑ "How Dangerous Is Global Warming?", Los Angeles Times, June 17, 2001. Retrieved on April 14, 2007.
  22. ↑ "Put a Tiger In Your Think Tank", Mother Jones, May 2005. Retrieved on October 20, 2015.
  23. ↑ Singer, S. Fred. Environmental Strategies with Uncertain Science. Archived from the original on January 10, 2008. Retrieved on January 15, 2003.
  24. ↑ Michaels (May 27, 1994). "Analyzing Ultraviolet-B Radiation: Is There a Trend?". Science 264 (5163): 1341–1342. DOI:10.1126/science.264.5163.1341. PMID 17780851. 
  25. ↑ Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "nature1".
  26. ↑ Summary for Policymakers. The Heartland Institute (September 2013). Archived from the original on 2013-10-20. Retrieved on March 14, 2014.
  27. ↑ Suzuki, David (September 25, 2013). Climate Change Deniers Don't Deserve an Equal Voice. Huffington Post. Retrieved on March 14, 2014.
  28. ↑ McKelway, Doug (September 19, 2013). New study says threat of man-made global warming greatly exaggerated. Fox News Channel. Retrieved on March 16, 2014.
  29. ↑ McKelway, Doug (September 18, 2013). Fox Equates Faux UN Climate Report With The Real Thing. Media Matters for America. Retrieved on March 16, 2014.
  30. ↑ Gillis. "British Panel Clears Climate Scientists", The New York Times, July 8, 2010. Retrieved on August 23, 2025.

Hụkwa

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
  • Sayensị dịpụrụ adịpụ
  • Ịṅụ sịga nke abụọ
  • Ike nke Nnukwu Mmanụ

Ihe edeturu

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]

Njikọ mpụga

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
  •  
Ewepụtara site na "https://ig.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fred_Singer&oldid=656684"