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Col legno

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Image
A violin being played col legno.
Col legno on violin:
0 sec: battuto
9 sec: tratto
20 sec: tratto with tremolo
33 sec: tratto with glissando
48 sec: battuto with movement of the bow across the fingerboard

In music for bowed string instruments, col legno (pronounced [kol ˈleɲɲo] kol LEN-yoh, also /kol lɛɡnəʊ/ kol LEG-noh, translated roughly as 'with the wood') is an instruction to use the stick of the bow to make contact with the strings, rather than the string or hair of the bow, which is how bowed string instruments are usually played.[1] The sound created from playing col legno is considerably different from the regular arco bowing, with an audibly distinct timbre.[2]

Col legno is largely associated with the avant-garde genre, despite having been used since the classical and baroque periods.[3] Composers that have used col legno in their works include Gustav Holst, Louis-Hector Berlioz, and Camille Saint-Saëns; usually to create threatening or macabre sounds, due to the coarse sound of col legno (especially battuto).[4] It is considered an extended technique for bowed string instruments, mainly in an orchestral context, so being played on violin, viola, violoncello, and double bass.[5]

Col legno is performed by rotating the stick so it touches the strings. There are two primary variants of col legno:[6] battuto (the most common technique) is the action of percussively hitting the strings, and tratto is the action of bowing across the strings using the wood.[7] There are, however, various other forms used in experimental music, combining col legno with other techniques.[8]

Usage

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Early usage

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The earliest known use of col legno in Western music is found in a piece entitled "Harke, harke" from the First Part of Ayres (1605) by Tobias Hume.[7] He instructs the gambist to "drum this with the [back][a] of your bow".[9] Another early usage was in Capriccio Stravagante, a 1627 chamber piece by Carlo Farina, where he notes "here one strikes the strings with the wood of the bow," implying col legno.[7][10]

The earliest usage of the term col legno in a piece's manuscript was in Heinrich Ignaz Franz von Biber's La Battalia Sinfonia (1673[11]). In an attempt to portray the sounds of battle, he uses percussive effects in the string section, including col legno.[12] From there, the technique gained prominence and became standard through integration in the classical period and even more so in the 19th and 20th centuries, as composers recognised the capacity of col legno to enrich the string sound palette.[13]

Other notable usages

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The opening of Mars, The Bringer of War from Gustav Holst's The Planets Suite, in which the strings can be heard playing col legno.

Variations of col legno

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String players can make the bow wood interact with the strings in multiple ways. All of the following variants of col legno can be used alongside sul ponticello, sul tasto, and be played behind the bridge (sub ponticello).

Battuto

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Col legno battuto[b] is the most common form of col legno.[34] Battuto involves striking the wood of the bow onto the strings, creating a percussive effect.[35] Battuto is said to be more effective and characteristic in the lower registers of the string section, since in higher registers the tone of the note being played battuto is usually negated, only leaving the percussive 'click' sound.[24]

Technique

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To perform col legno battuto, the bow is rotated so that the wooden stick of the bow faces (and so can strike) the strings.[36][37] The contact point of the bow to the strings is typically closer to the middle of the bow; neither nearer the tip nor the frog. The action of striking the string is rhythmic and similar to a drumming action, not held onto the string for long.[20]

Sound

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Distinctly dry, percussive, and sometimes ghostly,[38] the sound made by the 'click' of battuto has a clear pitch element determined by the distance of the bow from the bridge at the point of contact,[13] however the pitch of the stopped note is rarely definite or audible.[36] As a group of players will never strike the string in exactly the same place, the sound of a section of strings playing col legno battuto is dramatically different from the sound of a single string instrument doing so.[2][39] The timbre of battuto is unique and subtle, as there is no percussion instrument that can readily reproduce its accented sound.[40]

Tratto

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Col legno tratto[c] is a much rarer version of col legno; so much so that Gustav Mahler included a note in the third movement of his First Symphony: "No mistake! to be stroked with the wood".[42] Tratto also occurs in many works of the Second Viennese School, such as Anton Friedrich Wilhelm von Webern's Four Pieces for Violin and Piano, Op. 7,[43] Alban Berg's Lyric Suite,[44] and Arnold Schoenberg's Moses und Aaron,[45] as well as other more contemporary and avant-garde pieces.[46]

Technique

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Executing tratto is similar to executing battuto, in that the contact is still between the wooden part of the bow and the strings, however in tratto the bow is dragged—or 'painted'[47]—across the strings.[35][48] Control of the bow speed and pressure is critical for sound clarity and consistency whilst playing tratto,[20] but intonation of the stopped note is considered to be 'of secondary importance'.[49]

Sound

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The sound produced by col legno tratto is very quiet and muted, with white noise,[50] and is sometimes used to create eerie sounds,[36] but the pitch of the stopped note can be clearly heard amongst the 'scratching'.[7][20][51] The sound is sometimes considered to be too quiet or 'airy' in a performance setting.[24]

Half tratto

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Half tratto[d] is a version of col legno tratto involving bowing with half of the bow hair and half of the bow stick.[53][54] This can be used to transition between col legno tratto and arco, as well as during a standalone passage.[50]

Half battuto is also sometimes used, following the principles of half tratto, but playing battuto instead.[55]

In pure col legno, the bow hair is not used, but the edge of the hair can be allowed to contact the string along with the wood so that a more discernable pitch can be heard in the col legno colour.[56]

Technique

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Half tratto is achieved by, instead of turning the bow 180 degrees (so that the wood directly faces the strings), it turned at a slighter angle (around 90 degrees). This allows both the hair and the wood to make contact with the string in part.[56][57]

Sources conflict as to whether the rotation of the bow is with the hair facing the player or with the wood facing the player.[e][f]

Sound

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Since both the wood and hair make contact with the string in half tratto, the sound made is clearer and louder than when playing fully tratto.[56] For this reason, players often use half tratto to project more in performance.[62] Half tratto also creates a distinct timbre to regular bowing, as well as a clear pitch.[63]

Gettato

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Col legno gettato[g] is essentially a combination of the technique ricochet or jeté with col legno battuto. This technique is used to play several notes in quick succession in one bow stroke; usually this is several reiterations of the same pitch, instead of a melodic line.[65] Although the bounce of regular col legno battuto does give a similar 'quasi-jeté' sound, gettato is distinct in its repetitive nature.[40] Col legno gettato is exceptionally uncommon, found only in extended, experimental, or modern repertoire.

Technique

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The technique to execute gettato is exactly the same to that of ricochet only with the bow's wood facing the strings. The bow is lightly tossed against the strings and allowed to bounce, producing several reiterations of pitch.[66] Gettato is primarily executed on the bow’s upper third for smoother down-bowing. The speed and height of the bounce can be adjusted by the pressure of the index finger and where the bow first makes contact with the string: closer to the frog of the bow for slower bounces and towards the middle or tip for quicker ones.[39] Gettato is applied when groups of pitches after an initial attack are grouped together—the notation for this is a slur over the repeated notes,[66] or a tremolo under battuto.[67]

Sound

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The sound of gettato is, naturally, simply battuto but with rapid reiteration. Through this, its texture is more articulated and rhythmic, so to create a sense of movement rather than that of static.[68] Violinist Tomás Cotik described ricochet by itself as "[sounding] like extended teeth chattering", so col legno gettato can only be more so.[69]

Notation

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A musical staff with notes, above which "col legno" is written.
Col legno indicated above the staff. Battuto is usually assumed as the specific technique is not indicated.

To direct the bowed string player to play col legno, "col legno [battuto/tratto]" is written directly above the staff at the point of which it is to be played col legno. Col legno is sometimes abbreviated to "c.l." or "C.L.", sometimes with an added "t." or "b." for tratto or battuto, respectively.[70] The technique is assumed until "arco"[h] is written directly above the staff, indicating the player to return to regular bowing.[71]

In addition, col legno battuto is sometimes indicated via altered noteheads—inclduing x-shaped, square, or triangle—from the rest of the piece.[72] Used mostly in conjunction with the staff text, these noteheads are used primarily in cases of frequent switching between arco and col legno, and therefore most prominent in modern and avant-garde music.[73]

As col legno battuto is significantly more common than col legno tratto, performers assume to play battuto even when only "col legno" is written,[74][75] except in cases where it is clear tratto was intended over battuto; for example when the passage contains long, sustained notes. However, it is recommended to specify whether battuto or tratto is intended.[76]

Presence in aleatoric music

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A string section playing col legno ad lib., making a cluster effect.

Col legno is a technique often used in aleatoric music. When directing a string section to play col legno (usually battuto) ad libitum, the effect created is a "grainy percussive materiality," and "a sense of turmoil, of things quickly rushing past."[77] In modern classical music and avant-garde music, aleatoric techniques are employed even more frequently, using the notation of an aleatoric cell:[i] a box on the staff containing a short figure to be repeated at the tempo of the performer's choice, preferably at a rhythm or tempo differing to the other players in the performance.[78][79]

Image
An aleatoric cell. The notation in the box is repeated at the tempo of the player's choice for the duration indicated by the thick line.

The aleatoric device of ad libitum col legno combines the coarse, woody timbre of col legno[80] with the chaotic nature of ad lib. playing, which naturally creates tone clusters due to the unpredictable nature of a section of strings essentially improvising.[81]

In orchestral sound samplers, catalogues, and online toolkits, aleatoric technique and texture samples are found commonly, used mostly to create distinctly dissonant soundscapes or horror music. Often included in these catalogues are col legno clusters, in which a section of strings perform col legno battuto ad libitum.[82][83][84][85][86]

Film music

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This aleatoric device of col legno clusters is found in film music, particularly in the horror genre. This technique is often used to evoke tense scenarios, the sound of dripping or clattering, or even insects and arachnids.[20][87][88][89]

Films that incorporate aleatoric col legno in their soundtracks include:

Risks

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Excessive or particularly aggressive playing of col legno can damage the bow.[97] Extended col legno playing can also damage the varnish or finish of the bow,[34][98] scratch the instrument surface, create 'rosin lines,'[99] damage the wood of the bow,[40] or damage string windings. Therefore, many string players choose to play with a less valuable bow.[100][101][102][103]

Some organisations sell bows specifically made for playing col legno, where the stick is made out of stronger, stiffer material, like carbon fibre or fibreglass, instead of the usual wood.[104][105][106] Some players tap the strings with pencils instead of bows, producing a further percussive, lighter sound.[13][24][75][107]

Notes

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  1. ↑ Originally 'backe' (pronounced /ˈbæke/: old English)
  2. ↑ Italian pronunciation: [batˈtu.to]; English pronunciation: /bəˈtutoʊ/ bə-TOO-toh also /ˈbættʌttəʊ/ BA-tuu-toh. Literally 'beaten' in Italian[33]
  3. ↑ Italian pronunciation: [ˈtrat.to]; English pronunciation: /tʁaːto/ TRAH-toh also /tʁæːto/ TRA-toh. Literally 'drawn' in Italian[41]
  4. ↑ Or 1⁄2 tratto, also called half legno, col legno arco or quasi col legno[52]
  5. ↑ Sources saying the bow hair should face the player:[55][58][59]
  6. ↑ Sources saying the bow wood should face the player:[59][60][61]
  7. ↑ Literally 'thrown' in Italian[64]
  8. ↑ Or equivalent: "naturale", "modo ordino", "ordinary", "normale", etc.
  9. ↑ Also called an aleatoric box[78]

References

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  1. ↑ Cambridge Dictionary Col legno
  2. 1 2 3 4 String Section Col Legno Retrieved April 2026
  3. ↑ Barbiero, Daniel (October 2019). "What's in a Name? And Is "Extended Technique" a Good One?". Perfect Sound Forever. Retrieved 26 April 2026. Although considered an example of extended technique for strings, and despite being largely associated with avant-garde works, [...] col legno playing had been integrated into orchestral practice during the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries.
  4. ↑ Reese, Emily (27 October 2014). "Learning to Listen: Spooky Sounds". Your Classical. Retrieved 3 May 2026.
  5. ↑ Malone, Seth (24 April 2026). "The Strad" The sound of lamenting: strings in new sound worlds Retrieved 26 April 2026
  6. ↑ "Tonebase" What is Col Legno on the Violin? Col Legno Tratto And Col Legno Battuto Compared
  7. 1 2 3 4 Lizzy Welsh, Col legno battuto, col legno tratto Retrieved 9 Apr 2026
  8. ↑ Nummela, Arttu (2023). The contemporary string instruments (PDF). Kungliga Musikhögskolan. p. 13 (p. 19 in PDF). Retrieved 27 April 2026.
  9. ↑ Peter Walls, "Bow" II. Bowing, The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001): §2, xi.
  10. ↑ Pearlman, Martin. "Carlo Farina: Capriccio stravagante - Program Notes". Boston Baroque. Retrieved 9 May 2026.
  11. ↑ IMSLP Battalia à 10 (Biber, Heinrich Ignaz Franz von)
  12. ↑ Music Practice & Theory The earliest known use or indication of "col legno" Retrieved April 2026
  13. 1 2 3 "Historical Context". Oppera. Distrito de Barranco, Peru. Retrieved 9 May 2026.
  14. ↑ Boston Baroque "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Violin Concerto No. 5 in A Major, K. 219" Col legno usage
  15. ↑ Haydn107 Sinfoniae "Symphony No. 67 in F major" Retrieved April 2026
  16. ↑ Haydn: Symphony No. 67 in F major Archived October 2013, retrieved April 2026
  17. ↑ Siepmann, Jeremy (2003). "3: The Major Works and Their Significance". In Helsby, Genevieve; Taylor, Michael (eds.). Life and Works: Joseph Haydn (PDF). Naxos Multimedia. p. 39. Retrieved 19 April 2026. The most daring of all Haydn's instrumental surprises is possibly the moment in Symphony No. 67 when he instructs the violinists to turn their bows upside down and draw the wood rather than the hair over the strings (col legno).
  18. ↑ Houston Symphony Poetry in Motion: Chopin’s Piano Concerto No. 2 Retrieved April 2026
  19. ↑ MusicWeb: Chopin Piano Concerto No. 2 Retrieved April 2026
  20. 1 2 3 4 5 6 MuseCool "Historical Background and Use" Retrieved April 2026
  21. 1 2 Classical Voice "Legno" – col legno Retrieved April 2026
  22. ↑ The Music Workshop Company Holst, "Mars" from The Planets
  23. ↑ OrchLab Listening Guide – ‘Mars’ from The Planets Retrieved April 2026
  24. 1 2 3 4 Hoffmann, Robin. Col Legno on Strings Retrieved April 2026
  25. ↑ BBC Ten Pieces "Mars" from The Planets (Holst)
  26. ↑ Houston Symphony The Ultimate Russian Fairytale: Stravinsky’s The Firebird Released August 2019, retrieved April 2026
  27. ↑ "Igor Stravinsky - The Firebird & The Rite of Spring [RB]: Classical CD Reviews - June 2003". www.musicweb-international.com. Retrieved 2026-04-10.
  28. ↑ Gray, Allin. "Thematic Sympbolism in Shostakovich Symphony No. 7". www.allingray.com. Retrieved 19 April 2026.
  29. ↑ MusicWeb: Shostakovich Symphony No. 7 Leninagrad Retrieved April 2026
  30. ↑ IMSLP p. 17. Score of Symphony No. 7, courtesy of the International Music Score Library Project. Retrieved April 2026
  31. ↑ Houston Symphony Russian Romance: Rachmaninoff’s Piano Concerto No. 3 Retrieved April 2026
  32. ↑ Nobuyuki Tsujii Internation Fans "7 Pianists! Rachmaninov's Piano Concerto No. 2 vs No. 3" Retrieved 16 April 2026
  33. ↑ Cambridge Dictionary Translation of battuto
  34. 1 2 The Modern Double Bass Col legno battuto
  35. 1 2 Musicca Col legno definitions
  36. 1 2 3 The Study of Orchestration SCRIBD Sul Ponticello and Col Legno techniques. Retrieved April 2026
  37. ↑ Yamaha Music "Eight Spooky String Techniques" Retrieved April 2026
  38. ↑ "Violin Lounge" The Complete Guide to Violin Bowing Techniques: From Beginner to Advanced
  39. 1 2 Musical How Violin Bowing Techniques List
  40. 1 2 3 "Young Composers" Orchestration: Techniques of Strings - Part I
  41. ↑ Simple Music Dictionary "SMD" Col legno tratto definition
  42. ↑ Piston, Walter (1969). "Chapter One: The Instruments of the Orchestra - Stringed Instruments". Orchestration (PDF) (Fifth ed.). London: Victor Gollancz Ltd. p. 22 (p. 12 on PDF). Retrieved 13 April 2026.
  43. ↑ IMSLP Score of Four Pieces for Violin and Piano, courtesy of the International Music Score Library Project. Notates tratto as "col legno (gerissen)", 'gerissen' meaning 'ripped' (German). Retrieved April 2026
  44. ↑ Marc Bridle, "Seen and Heard" Berg, Lyric Suite & Schubert Retrieved April 2026
  45. ↑ Boulezian Commentary of "Moses and Aron," retrieved April 2026
  46. ↑ Joubert, Stefan (21 January 2025). "From Classic to Contemporary: Violin Techniques Beyond Détaché and Spiccato". London Violin Institute. Retrieved 13 April 2026.
  47. ↑ Term 'painting' retrieved from: Dangas, Philip Instrumentation for symphonic world music "Description and application of the playing technique col legno tratto" Retrieved 13 April 2026
  48. ↑ Andrew Hugill, The Orchestra: A User's Manual Retrieved April 2026
  49. ↑ "Col legno tratto as part of the 'symphonic world music'". Retrieved 9 May 2026. The special way of playing col legno tratto should always be used when the exact intonation is of secondary importance.
  50. 1 2 Ashely John Long, "The Modern Double Bass" Col legno tratto - half tratto. Retrieved 11 April 2026
  51. ↑ Daino, Eric (Spring 2010). The Double Bass: A Technical Study of Timbre. University of Delaware. p. 15 (p. 24 in PDF). Retrieved 13 April 2026.
  52. ↑ Musicca Quasi col legno definition
  53. ↑ Violin Lounge 20 Orchestral Violin Bowing Techniques Retrieved April 2026
  54. ↑ Sigman, Alexander (2011). Vurtruvurt (PDF). UCLA Contemporary Music Score Collection (2020). p. iii. Retrieved 27 April 2026.
  55. 1 2 Bång, Malin. Arching (PDF). Retrieved 13 April 2026.
  56. 1 2 3 SCRIBD Bowing and Pizzicato Terms
  57. ↑ Rhys Williams, Tristan (September 2010). The Physicality of Sound Production on Acoustic Instruments (PDF). Brunel University. pp. 66, 69. Retrieved 11 April 2026.
  58. ↑ Nummela, Arttu. The contemporary string instruments (PDF). pp. 12–13 (pp. 18–19 in PDF). Retrieved 13 April 2026.
  59. 1 2 Maestronet "How to do Col Legno" Discussion of how to play col legno. Retrieved 13 April 2026
  60. ↑ ResearchGate Visual display for bow tilt. Retrieved April 2026
  61. ↑ SCRIBD String Instrument Techniques Terminolgy and Techniques
  62. ↑ Mantione, Philip. "String Articulations: Terminology and Effects". Pro Audio Files. Retrieved 11 April 2026.
  63. ↑ William McCombs, Mark (April 2020). Portfolio of Compositions (PDF). The University of Sheffield. p. 52. Retrieved 11 April 2026.
  64. ↑ Musicca Gettato definition
  65. ↑ "Weebly" Extended Techniques on Cello
  66. 1 2 "The Modern Double Bass" Col legno gettato — Technical Practice
  67. ↑ Cucarella, Bernat. "Col Legno Gettato" (in Spanish: translation option available). Retrieved 24 May 2026.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  68. ↑ Dangas, Philip Col legno battuto — Special playing styles Description of the playing technique col legno battuto and gettato. Retrieved 13 April 2026
  69. ↑ "Violinist Tomás Cotik on how to produce clear and controlled ricochet bowing". The Strad. 18 December 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2026. Drop the bow and try to keep the bow bouncing in tiny motions. It should sound like extended teeth chattering.
  70. ↑ "M5 Music" Col legno - with the wood. Retrieved April 2026
  71. ↑ MuseCool Notational Practices
  72. ↑ Wennäkoski, Lotta (2019). Zeng. Helsinki: Fennica Gehrman.
  73. ↑ The Modern Double Bass Col legno notation. Retrieved 19 April 2026
  74. ↑ Violin Lounge 18 Main Violin Bowing Techniques with Examples and Symbols Retrieved April 2026
  75. 1 2 Davies, Tim. "deBreved" The More You Bow
  76. ↑ Andrew Hugill, List of violin bowing techniques Retrieved April 2026
  77. ↑ Filippo, Faustini (27 September 2018). "How Jonny Greenwood Uses Materiality, Clusters, and Aleatoricism in His Film Music". Flypaper. Retrieved 14 April 2026.
  78. 1 2 Cooke, Michael. Aleatoric Box Notation: Control, Freedom, and the Sound of Letting Go
  79. ↑ De Togni, Putting It All Together Performance Notes
  80. ↑ M5 Music Col Legno - With the wood Retrieved 14 April 2026
  81. ↑ "The Flying Inkpot" Henry Cowell American Piano Concertos – Col Legno (12 December 2026). Retrieved 14 April 2026
  82. ↑ MakeMusic Garritan - Instruments and Combinations
  83. ↑ "Bulletproof Bear" Orchestral Toolkit - Aleatoric Textures
  84. ↑ "SoundIron" About Hyperion Strings Ensemble
  85. ↑ Vienna Symphonic Library Synchron Duality Strings (fx)
  86. ↑ 8DIO Symphonic Shadows "Arts, Specs and Reqs - String Effects: Ensemble String Short Note Perc Effect Banks"
  87. ↑ "Sound on Sound" Soniccouture Threnody Strings - Clusters & Clouds Retrieved 14 April 2026
  88. ↑ Mera, Miguel (2016). Materialising Film Music (PDF). City St George’s, University of London: Cooke, M. & Ford, F. (Eds.). Retrieved 14 April 2026.
  89. ↑ Sehman, Steven (2025). Volume 12, issue 4. "inTransition" The Body in the Soundtrack
  90. ↑ Vary, Adam (23 June 2015). "BuzzFeed" James Horner’s Most Iconic Movie Scores And Songs
  91. ↑ "The Arts Are Life" Movie Review: There Will Be Blood Retrieved April 2026
  92. ↑ MUBI Scores On Screen. In Space You Can Hear a Symphony: The Story Behind the Theme for "Alien"
  93. ↑ "Movie Music UK" The Master — Jonny Greenwood
  94. ↑ Simons, Pete. "Synchrotones' Soundtrack Reviews" Interstellar (Hans Zimmer). Retrieved 19 April 2026
  95. ↑ Rogers, Felicia (May 2015). "Analyzing thematic material in Corigliano's The Red Violin Chaconne". Texas Tech University Libraries. Retrieved 19 April 2026.
  96. ↑ "CORE" Post-minimalistic Techniques in Contemporary Film Music
  97. ↑ "AudioLexic" Col Legno. Retrieved April 2026
  98. ↑ John Long, Ashley. "Col Legno - Notes". The Modern Double Bass. Retrieved 13 April 2026.
  99. ↑ "Col Legno: Bow Destroyer?" Violinst.com
  100. ↑ "Violin Online" Violin Bowing Directions Retrieved 11 April 2026
  101. ↑ Blatter, A.: "Instrumentation and Orchestration", page 37. Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 1997
  102. ↑ Sekulic, Dejana. "Do you hear me? Handbook to contemporary violin notation" (PDF). Retrieved 11 April 2026.
  103. ↑ "Extended Violin Techniques". Retrieved 13 April 2026.
  104. ↑ "The String Zone" Col legno standard violin, viola, and cello bows
  105. ↑ "Caswells" Col Legno Standard Violin bow
  106. ↑ "Violinspiration" What Are Violin Bows Made Of? Retrieved 27 April 2026
  107. ↑ Strange, Patricia; Allen Strange (2001). The Contemporary Violin: Extended Performance Techniques. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 108. ISBN 978-1-4616-6410-9.
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